| This is in a series of literature reviews on InGaN solar cells, which supported the comprehensive review by D.V.P. McLaughlin & J.M. Pearce, "Progress in Indium Gallium Nitride Materials for Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion"Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 44(4) pp. 1947-1954 (2013). open access Others: InGaN solar cells| InGaN PV| InGaN materials| InGan LEDs| Nanocolumns and nanowires| Optical modeling of thin film microstructure| Misc. |
Growth and properties of InAlN nanocolumns emitting in optical communication wavelengths.[1]To be expanded.[edit | edit source]
Abstract: InxAl1-xN nanocolumns (0.71lesxInles1.00) were fabricated on Si (111) substrates by RF-MBE. The room temperature photoluminescence (RT-PL) in optical communication wavelengths from 0.95 to 1.94 mum with changing xIn was observed. InN/InAlN heterostructures were also fabricated.
Plasma ehnancement of metalorganic chemical vapor deposition and properties of Er2O3 nanostructured thin films[2] To be expanded.[edit | edit source]
Abstract: An O2 remote plasma metal organic chemical vapor deposition (RP-MOCVD) route is presented for tailoring the structural, morphological, and optical properties of Er2O3 thin films grown on Si(100) using the tris(isopropylcyclopentadienyl)erbium precursor. The RP-MOCVD approach produced highly (100)-oriented, dense, and mechanically stable Er2O3 films with columnar structure.
[1] [2]Temperature induced shape change of highly aligned ZnO nanocolumns.[3] To be expanded.[edit | edit source]
Abstract:Vertically well-aligned ZnO nanocolumns were grown on Al2O3 (0 0 0 1) substrates via metalorganic chemical vapor deposition without using any metal catalyst. Their morphology was investigated as a function of the growth temperature (Tg), which was found to be a key processing parameter to control their shape. At Tg >=450 C, vertically well-aligned ZnO nanocolumns started to grow. It was found that a higher Tg yielded slimmer, needle shaped nanocolumns, whereas a lower Tg yielded thicker nanocolumns.
AlGaN nanocolumns grown by molecular beam epitaxy: optical and structural characterization[4] To be expanded.[edit | edit source]
Abstract: High quality AlGaN nanocolumns have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy on Si(111) substrates. Scanning Electron Microscopy micrographs show hexagonal, single crystal columns with diameters in the range of 30 to 60 nm. The nominal Al content of the nanocolumns was changed from 16% to 40% by selecting the flux ratio between the Al and the total III-element, while keeping the growth temperature and the active nitrogen constant. The nominal values of the Al content are consistently lower than the experimental ones, most likely due to the high Ga desorption rates at the growth temperature. The Al composition trend versus the Al flux is consistent with the E2 phonon energy values measured by inelastic light scattering. These results open the possibility to grow high quality low dimensional structures based on AlGaN/GaN/AlGaN heterocolumns for basic studies and device applications.
Optical Modelling of Thin Film Microstructures[edit | edit source]
Fabry-Perot effects in InGaN/GaN heterostructures on Si-substrate.[5][edit | edit source]
Interference trends are commonly observed whenever optical phenomenon are observed. By modeling the material in question as a Fabry-Perot microcavity, the analysis can continue. This paper describes a method in which the peaks observed in the PL (photoluminescence) data are extracted and 2*n/λ is plotted against peak index (i.e. peak index = 1, 2, 3…), the inverse of the slope on the linear fit to the data yields the film thickness. Note that n, the refractive index, is dependent on the material through which the photon is travelling (i.e. its composition x) and the wavelength (energy) of light (photon) propagating. The refractive index is evaluated at the wavelength at which the peak in PL is noted.
Improved refractive index formulas for the AlxGa1-xN and InyGa1-yN alloys.[6][6][6][6][6][18][18][21][21][24][edit | edit source]
The group of III-nitrides has many uses as semiconducting materials beyond PV cells, including LEDs and laser diodes. Due to the heavy reliance on optical properties to determine and improve the performance of these devices, it is crucial to have a well defined set of optical properties for the material used. This paper examines the methods for determining the index of refraction for both materials using two different models.
- The first model was originally developed by Bergmann and Casey[7] which shifts the refractive index of GaN to produce that for InGaN, based on the composition of In and the band gap energies of the constituents.
- A Sellmeier dispersion formula relates the refractive index to the wavelength or energy associated with the photon passing through the material.
An important observation that arises from this paper from the multitude of figures included is that as the photon energy approaches 3.4 eV (approximately 365 nm), the refractive index increases dramatically. This must be taken into account when designing for optical properties.
Optical properties of wurtzite structure GaN on sapphire around fundamental absorption edge (0.78-4.77 eV) by spectroscopic ellipsometry and the optical transmission method.[8][edit | edit source]
A more rigorous SellmeierW dispersion model is fit to refractive index data as a function of wavelength, with well defined fitting parameters determined and reported with 90% confidence limits. The measurements were achieved using spectroscopic ellipsometry performed at an angle of incidence of 60°over 260-830 nm with optical transmission measurement over the 370-1600 nm wavelength range. Film thickness was on the order of 1.25 μm. Note that one key assumption made in the Sellmeier model was that the extinction coefficient, the complex portion of the refractive index, was zero. This translates to no loss in intensity of the photon moving through the material, and does not significantly impact the resulting model.
Optical-field calculations for lossy multiple-layer AlxGax-1N/InxGa1-xN laser diodes.[7][7][7][7][7][19][19][22][22][25][edit | edit source]
The following excerpt from this paper summarizes its goal succinctly. "For calculations of nitride based LDs [laser diodes], refractive indicies are also needed for the solid solutions of AlxGa1-xN and InxGa1-xN. To our knowledge, the only refractive index data for the solid solutions is for Al0.1Ga0.9N.[9] In Sec. II, we approximate the refractive index for the solid solutions by shifting the GaN data according to the difference in band gap energy between the solid solution and GaN."
The measurement of absorption edge and band gap properties of novel nanocomposite materials.[10][edit | edit source]
Demonstration that band gap energy can be determined for a material by interpolating from the absorption spectra.
Infrared and Raman spectroscopy of ZnO nanoparticles annealed in hydrogen.[11][edit | edit source]
The affect of annealing ZnO nanoparticles in a hydrogen atmosphere was examined, and its affect on the control over optical properties was reported. The result of annealing ZnO nanorods in a H-rich atmosphere was an increase in free charge carrier density equating to a greater conductivity. A more generalizable result of the paper was the derived model of the dielectric function. Using a combination of a Lorentz-Drude model with a Bruggeman effective medium approximation, the effective dielectric function was determined.
Spectroscopy of metamaterials from infrared to optical frequencies.[12][edit | edit source]
Abstract: We review both the theoretical electromagnetic response and the spectroscopic measurements of metamaterials. To critically examine published results for metamaterial structures operating in the range from terahertz to optical frequencies, we focus on protocols allowing one to extract the optical constants from experimental observables. We discuss the complexity of this task when applied to metamaterials exhibiting electric, magnetic, and magneto-optical response. The general theory of the electromagnetic response of such systems is presented and methods are described. Finally, we briefly overview possible solutions for implementing metamaterials with tunable resonant behavior.
Simulation of the Optical Absorption Spectra of Gold Nanorods as a Function of Their Aspect Ratio and the Effect of the Medium Dielectric Constant[13][edit | edit source]
Using a Maxwell-Garnett effective medium approximation, a model of optical absorption was developed which related absorption to aspect ratio (R) and the dielectric function of the medium supporting the nanoparticles. An important conclusion made was that the relationship between aspect ratio and both the absorption coefficient and the medium dielectric constant is linear. Also, two distinct peaks in the absorption spectra were noted; one for absoprtion in the longitudinal direction (along the length of the nanorods) and the other in the transverse direction (perpendicular to the length of the nanorods).
Light propagation in nanorod arrays.[14][edit | edit source]
This article explores the interaction between incident light and an array of silver nanocolumns in a gelatin matrix. Very few numbers are provided relating the results to the material, which means it is very simple to extract the information relavent to any material. Using a Maxwell-Garnett effective medium approximation, the effective dielectric function of the nanorods constructed can be determined based on the known volume fraction of nanorods and the dielectric functions of the matrix and the nanorod materials. The analysis is further extended to investigate the effects of size (diameter) of the nanorods (varried between 10 nm and 60 nm), as well as the order/periodicity of the array.
Gallium nitride nanorod arrays as low refractive index transparent media in the entire visible spectral region.[15][edit | edit source]
Researchers in Taiwan successfully modeled GaN nanorods grown by plasma-assisted MBE (PA-MBE). It was demonstrated by comparing the results of modelling with Fresnel equations and a Bruggemann effective medium model that an effective medium approximation was valid for thin films (valid up to thickness of approximately 1.2 um). For thicker films (on the order of 2 um), this model broke down as the columns tended to coalesce (merge to form larger, abnormally shaped columns) at their tips. The model produced was valid in the transparent region of the material in near-UV light, or at wavelengths < 365 nm.
Optical absorption properties of Mg-doped GaN nanocolumns.[16][edit | edit source]
Abstract: Optical properties of GaN nanocolumnar films with and without Mg doping are characterized in the visible and ultraviolet regions. Strong uniaxial anisotropy of dielectric constants is observed by ellipsometry. The complex dielectric functions determined from the reflectance and transmittance spectra showed that the 2 value is found to be reduced by approximately 50% of that of the epitaxial-GaN film in the energy range above the band gap regardless of Mg doping. This anisotropy and reduction in dielectric constants are due to polarization fields of nanocolumnar crystallites and their interactions. The absorption in undoped GaN nanocolumnar film extends below the band gap of epitaxial GaN, probably due to defects in the nanocolumnar film. Further extension of the absorption tail by Mg doping can be attributed to the transition from a Mg-acceptor level detected in the cathodoluminescence spectra from Mg-doped samples.
Broadband and omnidirectional antireflection from conductive indium-tin-oxide nanocolumns prepared by glancing-angle deposition with nitrogen.[17][edit | edit source]
Abstract: Characteristic formation of highly oriented indium-tin-oxide (ITO) nanocolumns is demonstrated using electron-beam evaporation with an obliquely incident nitrogen flux. The nanocolumn material exhibits broadband and omnidirectional antireflective characteristics up to an incidence angle of 70° for the 350–900 nm wavelength range for both s- and p-polarizations. Calculations based on a rigorous coupled-wave analysis indicate that the superior antireflection arises from the tapered column profiles which collectively function as a gradient-index layer. Since the nanocolumns have a preferential growth direction which follows the incident vapor flux, the azimuthal and polarization dependence of reflectivities are also investigated. The single ITO nanocolumn layer can function as antireflection contacts for light emitting diodes and solar cells.
http://web.archive.org/web/20090921152848/http://www.sciencedirect.com:80/science_obArticleURL&_udi=B6VMT-4PSK923-12&_user=1025668&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050549&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=1025668&md5=48b323842d83b81fcc7821209281d0d6 Raman scattering by longitudinal optical phonons in InN nanocolumns grown on Si(1 1 1) and Si(0 0 1) substrates.[18][edit | edit source]
Abstract: Raman measurements in high-quality InN nanocolumns and thin films grown on both Si(1 1 1) and Si(1 0 0) substrates display a low-energy coupled LO phonon–plasmon mode together with uncoupled longitudinal optical (LO) phonons. The coupled mode is attributed to the spontaneous accumulation of electrons on the lateral surfaces of the nanocolumns, while the uncoupled ones originates from the inner part of the nanocolumns. The LO mode in the columnar samples appears close to the E1(LO) frequency. This indicates that most of the incident light is entering through the lateral surfaces of the nanocolumns, resulting in pure longitudinal–optical mode with quasi-E1 symmetry. For increasing growth temperature, the electron density decreases as the growth rate increases. The present results indicate that electron accumulation layers do not only form on polar surfaces of InN, but also occur on non-polar ones. According to recent calculations, we attribute the electron surface accumulation to the temperature dependent In-rich surface reconstruction on the nanocolumns sidewalls.
Optimization of Open-Circuit Voltage in Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells with Mixed Phase (Amorphous + Nanocrystalline) p-Type Contacts of Low Nanocrystalline Content.[19][edit | edit source]
This article details the use of real time spectroscopic ellipsometery (RTSE) to find the surface roughness layer thickness and the bulk layer thickness of depositions of thin film a-Si. Using the relative changes between surface roughness layer thickness and bulk layer thickness, it can be determined when the transition from a-Si to (a-Si + u-Si) and the transition from (a-Si +u-Si) to single phase u-Si occurs. It is seen that a protocrystalline silicon layer with a low volume fraction of silicon nanocrystals results in the highest open circuit voltage.
Monoclinic optical constants, birefringence, and dichroism of slanted titanium nanocolumns determined by generalized ellipsometry.[20][edit | edit source]
Abstract: Generalized spectroscopic ellipsometry determines the principal monoclinic optical constants of thin films consisting of slanted titanium nanocolumns deposited by glancing angle deposition under 85° incidence and tilted from the surface normal by 47°. Form birefringence measured for wavelengths from 500 to 1000 nm renders the Ti nanocolumns monoclinic absorbing crystals with c-axis along the nanocolumns, b-axis parallel to the film interface, and 67.5° monoclinic angle between the a- and c-axes. The columnar thin film reveals anomalous optical dispersion, extreme birefringence, strong dichroism, and differs completely from bulk titanium. Characteristic bulk interband transitions are absent in the spectral range investigated.
Growth of vacuum evaporated ultraporous silicon studied with spectroscopic ellipsometry and scanning electron microscopy[21][edit | edit source]
Abstract:Using a combination of variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsometry and scanning electron microscopy, we investigated the scaling behavior of uniaxially anisotropic, ultraporous silicon manufactured with glancing angle deposition. We found that both the diameter of the nanocolumns and the spacing between them increase with film thickness according to a power-law relationship consistent with self-affine fractal growth. An ellipsometric model is proposed to fit the optical properties of the anisotropic silicon films employing an effective medium approximation mixture of Tauc-Lorentz oscillator and void. This study shows that the optical response of silicon films made at glancing incidence differs significantly from that of amorphous silicon prepared by other methods due to highly oriented nanocolumn formation and power-law scaling.
Characterisation of nanostructured GaSb: Comparison between large-area optical and local direct microscopic techniques.[22][edit | edit source]
This paper outlines a comprehensive analysis of GaSb nanowires grown in bulk GaSb, with heights of approximately < 55nm to 300nm. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) and photo-elastic modulated spectroscopic ellipsometry (PMSE) were used to determine the physical and optical properties of the materials. An optical model was constructed using a effective medium approximationW in which the conical nanocolums were modeled as stacks of cylinders with constant diameter to a good first approximation of optical properties resulting in estimations of physical properties. All characteristic parameters of the nanocolums were nondimensionalized where possible for generatlity. The results of SE and PMSE measurments were a completed Mueller matrix, which permitted the determination of the degree of polarizationW and depolarization indexW. It was noted that the degree of polarization decreased with increasing column height, which is thought to be the result of mutliple scattering effects. These effects pointed to inaccuracies in the effective medium approximation for these larger columns.
[3] Optical-model analysis of elastic scattering and polarization of 49.5 MeV protons on Sm.[23][edit | edit source]
Researchers at the Wheatstone Physics Laboratory in London, England, developed an optical model to estimate the effect of protons on samarium (Sm) isotopes. This analysis is fairly unrelated to solar technologies, however several of the same assumptions in the model may transfer. One of particular interest was the thought of how to handle difficulties in the model. The following quote from the article outlines the procedure quite well.
Smearing of the angular distributions due to the finite beam spot size, beam divergence and angular acceptance of the spectrometer were included in the theoretical predictions rather than subtracted from experimental results. The errors in the elastic cross sections are statistical, to which should be added absolute errors of...[23]
It is anticipated that in the development of optical models for InGaN, a similar procedure will be followed.
Determining thin film properties by fitting optical transmittance.[24][edit | edit source]
This paper discovers trends in transmittance as well as the real portion of the refractive index for materials. To relate the refractive index to the wavelength of light, a Cauchy relation (up to fourth-order) was fit to the data. Again, the assumption of a 'real portion only' fit to the refractive index data significantly simplifies analysis with little loss in relevance to the actual data, as this assumption assumes no losses in intensity, but no other distortion of the photon's pathways.
[4] ob ob ArticleURL& udi=B6W7T-43S618P-C& user=1025668& rdoc=1& fmt=& orig=search& sort=d&view=c& acct=C000050549& version=1& urlVersion=0& userid=1025668&md5=306b8123bb21009d24cf5cf1bc05cad9 Optical properties of Fabry-Perot microcavity with organic light emitting materials.[25][edit | edit source]
A comprehensive development of the Fabry-Perot microcavity model is completed for organic light emitting devices, which have similar structure and optical properties to inorganic materials (such as InGaN), but have greater manufacturing flexibility, require less power, and are produced at lower cost. This paper also describes the Airy function used to model interference in the PL data, which is a common way of representing interference in a Fabry-Perot type system. The Airy function is proportional to 1/sin2(d) where d is the path (phase) difference between two waves exiting a thin film.]]
Fabry-Perot oscillations in epitaxial ZnSe Layers.[26][edit | edit source]
A rigorous model for fitting an entire spectrum of PL data is developed in this paper. A function which includes the sum of two Gaussian peaks which is then multiplied by the Airy function is developed to model the data with approximately 12 fitting parameters to be adjusted. A significant amount of time can be spent on this model improving the fit, and automated curve fitting by a computer must be completed with caution as the large number of fitting parameters make it exceedingly likely that the function will fall into local minima when optimizing. Software such as Origin can be used with relative ease to develop an appropriate model.
Photovoltaic Behavior of Nanocrystalline SnS/TiO2[edit | edit source]
Abstract: Nanocrystalline tin sulfide (SnS) was prepared by chemical bath deposition, and the photovoltaic behavior of SnS/TiO2 was studied. The X-ray diffraction pattern and transmission electron microscopy revealed an ∼6 nm SnS polycrystalline orthorhombic structure. The SnS film exhibited a band gap of 1.3 eV, and its absorption coefficient was more than 1 × 104 cm−1 in the visible light range. The electrical conductivity activation energy of the SnS film was 0.22 eV, determined when the sample was heated in the temperature range of 111−144 °C. Although the sample was insulating at room temperature, photovoltaic behavior was found in a SnS/TiO2 structure, with an open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 471 mV, a short-circuit current density (Jsc) of 0.3 mA/cm2, and the conversion efficiency (η) of 0.1% under 1 sun illumination. The properties of SnS and the reasons behind the photovoltaic phenomenon of SnS/TiO2 are discussed.
PHOTOVOLTAICS LITERATURE SURVEY[edit | edit source]
- Provides a list of recently published journals on photovoltaics - great resource
Abstract: In order to help keep readers up-to-date in the field each issue of Progress in Photovoltaics will contain a list of recently published journal articles most relevant to its aims and scope. This list is drawn from an extremely wide range of journals, including IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, Journal of Applied Physics, Applied Physics Letters, Progress in Photovoltaics and Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. To assist the reader, the list is separated into broad categories, but please note that these classifications are by no means strict. Also note that inclusion in the list is not an endorsement of a paper's quality. If you have any suggestions please email Dr. Avi Shalav at avi.shalav@anu.edu.au
Nanowire Solar Cell[edit | edit source]
Abstract: The nanowire geometry provides potential advantages over planar waferbased or thin-film solar cells in every step of the photoconversion process. These advantages include reduced reflection, extreme light trapping, improved band gap tuning, facile strain relaxation, and increased defect tolerance. These benefits are not expected to increase the maximum efficiency above standard limits; instead, they reduce the quantity and quality of material necessary to approach those limits, allowing for substantial cost reductions. Additionally, nanowires provide opportunities to fabricate complex single-crystalline semiconductor devices directly on low-cost substrates and electrodes such as aluminum foil, stainless steel, and conductive glass, addressing anothermajor cost in current photovoltaic technology. This review describes nanowire solar cell synthesis and fabrication, important characterization techniques unique to nanowire systems, and advantages of the nanowire geometry.
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Growth and properties of InAlN nanocolumns emitting in optical communication wavelengths. J. Kamimua, K. Kishino, A. Kikuchi. IEEE Explore, Poster Session 4 (2008).
- ↑ Plasma ehnancement of metalorganic chemical vapor deposition and properties of Er2O3 nanostructured thin films. M.M. Giangregoria, M. Losurdo, A. Sacchetti, P. Capezutto, G. Bruno, G. Malandrino, I. L. Fragala, R. Lo Nigro, L. Armelao, D. Barreca, E. Tondello. Applied Physics Letters, Vol 91 (2007).
- ↑ Temperature induced shape change of highly aligned ZnO nanocolumns. J.Y. Park, I. O. Jung, J.H. Moon, B. Lee, S.S. Kim. Journal of Crystal Growth. Vol 282, Issue 3-4 (2005).
- ↑ AlGaN nanocolumns grown by molecular beam epitaxy: optical and structural characterization. J. Ristic, M.A.Sanchez-Garcia, E. Calleja, J. Sanchez-Paramo, J.M. Calleja, U. Jhan, K.H. Ploog. Physica Status Solidi. Vol 192 Num 1 (2002).
- ↑ Fabry-Perot effects in InGaN/GaN heterostructures on Si-substrate. C. Hums, T. Finger, T. Hempel, J. Christen, A. Dadgar, A. Hoffmann and A. Krost. Journal of Applied Physics. Vol. 101. Num. 3. (February 2007).
- ↑ Improved refractive index formulas for the AlxGa1-xN and InyGa1-yN alloys. G.M. Laws, E.C. Larkins, I. Harrison, C. Molloy and D. Somerfield. Journal of Applied Physics Vol. 89 Num. 2 (August 2000).
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Optical-field calculations for lossy multiple-layer AlxGax-1N/InxGa1-xN laser diodes. M.J. Bergmann and H.C. Casey Jr. Journal of Applied Physics Vol. 84, Num. 3. (April 1998).
- ↑ Optical properties of wurtzite structure GaN on sapphire around fundamental absorption edge (0.78-4.77 eV) by spectroscopic ellipsometry and the optical transmission method. G. Yu, G. Wang, H. Ishikawa, M. Umeno, T. Soga, T. Egawa, J. Watanabe and T. Jimbo. Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 70, Num. 24. (April 1997).
- ↑ J. Appl. Phys. Jpn.,Part 2 32, L1000H. Amano, N. Watanabe, N. Koide, and I. Akasaki. 1993.
- ↑ The measurement of absorption edge and band gap properties of novel nanocomposite materials. T.Nguyen, A.R.Hind. Varian, Inc.
- ↑ Infrared and Raman spectroscopy of ZnO nanoparticles annealed in hydrogen. W.M.H.Oo, M.D.McCluskey, J.Huso, L.Bergmann. Journal of Applied Physics, Vol 102 (2007).
- ↑ Spectroscopy of metamaterials from infrared to optical frequencies. W.J.Padilla, D.R.Smith, D.N.Basov. Journal of the Optical Society of America, Vol 23, No 3 (2006).
- ↑ Simulation of the Optical Absorption Spectra of Gold Nanorods as a Function of Their Aspect Ratio and the Effect of the Medium Dielectric Constant. S. Link, M. B. Mohamed, and M. A. El-Sayed. Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol 103 (1999).
- ↑ Light propagation in nanorod arrays. A.I.Rahachou, I.V.Zozoulenko. Journal of Applied Optics, Vol 9 (2007).
- ↑ Gallium nitride nanorod arrays as low refractive index transparent media in the entire visible spectral region. H.Y. Chen, H.W. Lin, C.Y. Wu, W.C. Chen, J.S. Chen, S. Gwo. Optics Express, Vol 16 Num 11 (2008).
- ↑ Optical absorption properties of Mg-doped GaN nanocolumns. T. Iwanaga, T. Suzuki, S. Yagi, T. Motooka. Journal of Applied Physics, Vol 98 (2005).
- ↑ Broadband and omnidirectional antireflection from conductive indium-tin-oxide nanocolumns prepared by glancing-angle deposition with nitrogen. C.H. Chang, P. Yu, C.S. Yang. Applied Physics Letters, Vol 94 (2009).
- ↑ S. Lazic, E. Gallardo, J.M. Callega, F. Agullo-Rueda, J. Grandal, M.A. Sanchez-Garcia, E. Calleja. Physica E: Low-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures, Vol 40 Issue 6 (2008).
- ↑ J. M. Pearce, N. Podraza, R. W. Collins, M.M. Al-Jassim, K.M. Jones, J. Deng, and C. R. Wronski Optimization of Open-Circuit Voltage in Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells with Mixed Phase (Amorphous + Nanocrystalline) p-Type Contacts of Low Nanocrystalline Content, Journal of Applied Physics, 101(11), 114301, 2007.
- ↑ Monoclinic optical constants, birefringence, and dichroism of slanted titanium nanocolumns determined by generalized ellipsometry. D.Schmidt, B. Booso, T. Hofmann, E. Schubert, A. Sarangan, M. Schubert. Applied Physics Letters, Vol 94 (2009).
- ↑ Growth of vacuum evaporated ultraporous silicon studied with spectroscopic ellipsometry and scanning electron microscopy. K. Kaminska, A.Amassian, L. Martinu, K. Robbie. Journal of Applied Physics. Vol 97 (2005)
- ↑ Characterisation of nanostructured GaSb: Comparison between large-area optical and local direct microscopic techniques. I.S. Nerbo, M. Kildemo, S.Leroy, I.Simonsen, E.Sondergard, L.Holt, J.C.Walmsley. Applied Optics. Vol 47. Issue 28 (2008).
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Optical-model analysis of elastic scattering and polarization of 49.5 MeV protons. P. B. Woollam, R. J. Griffiths, Joan F. Grace and V. E. Lewis. Nuclear Physics A. Vol 154 (1970).
- ↑ Determining thin film properties by fitting optical transmittance. J.D. Klein, A. Yen, S.F. Cogan. Applied Physics Letters. Vol 68. Num 4. (August 1990).
- ↑ Optical properties of Fabry-Perot microcavity with organic light emitting materials. B.Y. Jung, N.Y. Kim, C.H. Lee, C.K. Hwangbo, C. Seoul. Current Applied Physics, Vol 1 (January 2001).
- ↑ Fabry-Perot oscillations in epitaxial ZnSe Layers.Th. Weber, H. Stolz, W. von der Osten, M. Heuken and K. Heime. Semiconductor Science and Technology. Vol 10, 1113-1116. (May 1995).
