Peru community action

The principal environmental issues in Peru are water pollution, soil erosion, pollution and deforestation. Although these issues are problematic and equally destructive, the Peruvian Environmental ministry has been developing regulation and laws to decrease the amount of pollution created in major cities and have been making policies in order to decrease the present deforestation rate in Peru.

The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) estimates that the economic losses related to climate change could reach over 15% of national gross domestic product (GDP) by 2100. In 2010, Peruvian greenhouse gas emissions represented only 0.4% of global emissions. However, emissions are rising nationwide – particularly in the energy and transport sectors. In an effort to combat this, the Government of Peru approved a law to establish a national greenhouse gas inventory system called INFOCARBONO. INFOCARBONO will enable different ministries to include greenhouse gas management in their work.

Deforestation is a growing problem in the world today, especially concerning the Amazonian rainforest. In recent years deforestation has increased and deforestation now causes about 18% of green house emissions. Peru has the fourth largest area of rainforest in the world, which covers nearly 60% of its territory (70 million hectares). The deforestation rate in Peru is 0.35–0.5%, which is approximately 250,000 hectares cut down annually. Deforestation in Peru is largely a result of subsistence farming resulting from migrant farmers exploiting the squatter's law which allows citizens to get public land if they can prove that they have lived there for 5 years. More deforestation though, is caused by both legal and illegal logging, mining, petroleum drilling and road development.

Antonio Brack Egg, the Environmental minister in Peru, has said that deforestation is mostly caused by Andean farmers migrating to the Amazon, by new roads and gold mining, he plays down the contribution to deforestation caused by oil and gas companies.

The Peruvian government has said that 80% of Peru's primary forest can be saved or protected. Mr. Brack has said that his ministry has calculated that Peru needs about $25 million a year for the next 10 years to be able to conserve at least 54 million hectares. That the Peruvian government has committed $5 million a year and is looking for $20 million a year from the international community. He continues that 52 million hectares will be divided into 4 parts, 17 million hectares of national parks which are already in existence, 12 million hectares for 42 indigenous groups, 12 million hectares for sustainable forestry development, and 5 million for ecotourism. Germany has already committed $5 million for the national Parks, Holland is interested in funding for indigenous groups and Brack is hoping for funds from Britain, Japan and Finland. The Environmental minister is also asking for 3,000 environmental police to try and stop deforestation in remote areas.

Peru had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 14th globally out of 172 countries.

• Total forest area: 68,742,000 ha• percentage of land area: 53.7%• Primary forest cover: 61,065,000 ha• percentage of land area: 47.7%• percentage total forest area: 88.8%

Deforestation Rates, 2000–2005

• Annual change in forest cover:-94,200 ha• Annual deforestation rate:-0.1%• Change in deforestation rate since '90s: 1.3%• Total forest loss since 1990:-1,414,000 ha• Total forest loss since 1990:-2.0%

Primary or "Old-growth" forests

• Annual loss of primary forests:-224600 ha• Annual deforestation rate:-0.4%• Change in deforestation rate since '90s: 214.7%• Primary forest loss since 1990:-1,123,000 ha• Primary forest loss since 1990:-2.9%

Forest Classification

• Public: 83.1%• Private: 15.2%• Other: 1.7%• Use• Production: 36.7%• Protection: 0.5%• Conservation: 26.9%• Social services: n.s.%• Multiple purpose: 26%• None or unknown: 9.9

Forest Area Breakdown

• Total area: 68,742,000 ha• Primary: 61,065,000 ha• Modified natural: 6,923,000 ha• Semi-natural: n/a• Production plantation: 754,000 ha• Production plantation: n/a

Plantations

• Plantations, 2005: 754,000 ha• percentage of total forest cover: 1.1%• Annual change rate (00-05): 7,800,000 ha

• Carbon storage

• Above-ground biomass: n/a M t• Below-ground biomass: n/a M t

Area annually affected by

• Fire: 35,000 ha• Insects: n/a• Diseases: n/a

Number of tree species in IUCN Red List

• Number of native tree species: 2,500• Critically endangered: 33• Endangered: 14• Vulnerable: 54

Wood removal 2005

• Industrial roundwood: 1,891,000 m3 o.b.• Wood fuel: 8,898,000 m3 o.b.

Value of forest products, 2005

• Industrial roundwood: $4,409,000• Wood fuel: n/a• Non-wood forest products (NWFPs): n/a• Total Value: $4,409,000

Air pollution is a big problem in Peru, especially in Lima, the capital city, which is caused by industrial activity and vehicle emissions. In August 2006, air pollution in Lima surpassed the international standard by 122.1% The average concentration of PTS reached 166.57 micrograms per cubic meter, the international standard is 77 micrograms per cubic meter. In 2009, 1.5 tons of lead and 810 tons of sulphur dioxide, were emitted daily, which is four times the maximum allowed under Peruvian legislation.The Peruvian government has created an alert system for high levels of pollution. There are three levels: watch, danger and emergency. During an emergency, children, pregnant women, the elderly and the ailing may be asked to stay indoors. Those who are healthy enough to continue with their lives outside are advised to cover their mouths and noses with scarves or handkerchiefs—but not facemasks, because according to government spokesperson Carlos Rojas "people don't want images that further dramatize the situation." Also Peru is using "super tree" technology, created by Tierra Nuestra to try and fight the air pollution in the major cities. The super tree acts like 1200 real trees, purifying the air. It sucks the outside air, and under thermodynamic pressure it combines the toxic particles in the air with water, and then pumps out clean air. Unfortunately, there are byproduct to the process, which include mud and non potable water. The Super Tree cleans approximately 200,000 cubic meters of air per day, eliminating air pollutions like carbon dioxide.

Water pollution sources in Peru include industrial waste, sewage and oil related waste. Peru has 1746 cu km of renewable water resources and 86% of this water is used for farming and 7% for industrial activity. In urban areas only 87% and in rural areas 62% of the population have access to clean water. In major cities 3.0 million tons of waste per year is created. President Alan García campaigned for a "water for all" strategic program, which proposed investment in 185 water supply and sanitation projects. The objective of this program is to expand potable water services from 76% to 88% of households; Sanitation from 57% to 77%; and sewage from 22% to 100% by 2015.Lake Titicaca is a specific concern to Puno in southeastern Peru because of its spiritual and historical significance. Contamination and pollution of the lake seriously affects the health of those that depend on it because current monitoring and testing of the lake is primitive and underfunded. Because of violence in and around the area the government is only now addressing the problem.According to the Oxfam report, more than half of Peru's rivers are extremely polluted in the North the Chillón, Yauli and Mantaro in the central region; and the Chili River in the South.

Peru's topography makes it susceptible to soil erosion. The coast of Peru is subject to wind erosion and water erosion is dominant in Sierra. Erosion also occurs in the High Selva when vegetation is cleared and in Low Selva where they get much rain on areas under slash and burn practises. The use of contoured lines, cover crops and mulching can control erosion to some extent depending on the climate and the slope. In addition, traditional methods can be used to prevent erosion like terracing and agroforestry.

While Peru accounts for about four per cent of the world's annual renewable water resources, over 98% of its water is available east of the Andes, in the Amazon region. The coastal area of Peru, with most of economic activities and more than half of the population, receives only 1.8% of the national freshwater renewable water resources. Economic and population growth are taking an increasing toll on water resources quantity and quality, especially in the coastal area of Peru.

The government of Peru is currently undertaking a major transformation of its water resources management from a centralized approach focused on irrigation development in the coastal area to a river basin integrated water resources management for the entire country. The 2009 Water Resources Law (Ley de Recursos Hídricos) and the draft National Water Resources Management Strategy of 2004 (Estrategia Nacional para la Gestión de los Recursos Hídricos Continentales del Perú) contain the necessary elements for Integrated Water Resources Management as stated in international good practices namely, integration of sectoral policies, participation of stakeholders, decentralization of management to the river basin level and recognition of water as a social and economic good. Despite the new law, several key challenges remain, including limited institutional capacity, increasing water stress in the coastal region, deteriorating water quality, poor efficiency in the irrigation sector, as well as inadequate access to and poor quality of water supply and sanitation.

The second half of the 20th century witnessed heavy public investments in dams in the Andes and associated irrigation infrastructure in the coastal region. For example, in the 1950s and 1960s, the San Lorenzo dam and Tinajones dam, the largest Peruvian dams, were built in the northern coastal region. Within the government the Ministry of Agriculture was given the responsibility to manage water resources, since irrigation was by far the largest water use. Its lead role was confirmed by the 1969 General Water Law No. 17752 (Ley General de Aguas—LGA) which defined the Ministry of Agriculture as the "National Water Authority". However, other laws—such as the General Hydrocarbon Law (DL 26221), the General Mining Law (DS 014-92-EM), the Law for Electricity Concessions (DL 25844)—also dealt with water resources on a sectorally fragmented basis within a centralized administrative system that gave little or no decision-making power to stakeholders at the local level. There was no legal basis for integrated water resources management at the level of each river basin, and consequently there were no institutions to implement such an integrated management. This began to change in the early 2000s with the approval of a Decentralization Law, a Regional Government Law and a Municipalities Law. In 2003 the government began transferring powers to the newly created regional governments, including for water quality management and the operation and maintenance of major public infrastructure, despite the limited institutional capacity of regional governments. A draft national water resources management strategy prepared in 2004 (Estrategia Nacional para la Gestion de los Recursos Hidricos Continentales del Peru) aimed at promoting integrated water resources management through a new institutional and legal framework. In this spirit a National Water Authority (Autoridad Nacional del Agua – ANA) was established in 2006 and its role was strengthened through the 2009 Water Resources Law (Ley de Recursos Hídricos – LRH). Implementation of the law and the creation of basin-level institutions with meaningful capacities and enforcement powers still remain a challenge. (See Legal and Institutional Framework below for more details)

Peru has a large amount of water resources, with 159 river basins and a per capita availability of 68,321 cubic meters (m³) in 2006. According to FAO the long-run average annual rainfall is 1,738 millimeters (mm). There is significant seasonal variability in river run-offs, two-thirds of which occur between January and April.

The Andes divide Peru into three natural drainage basins: Pacific basin (279,000 km²), Atlantic basin (959,000 km²) and Lake Titicaca basin (47,000 km²). According to the National Water Authority (Autoridad Nacional del Agua—ANA), the Pacific basin has 62 rivers; the Atlantic basin has 84 rivers; and Lake Titicaca basin has 13 rivers. The number of rivers in Peru varies depending on the source of information, because in some cases tributaries are counted as rivers in their own right and in other cases not.

According to ANA, the dry Pacific basin, with 37.4 km³ available per year, accounts for less than 2% of Peru's renewable water resources. Its 62 rivers flowing west from the Andes supply the bulk of the water to the coastal region. Of these rivers, only about 30% are perennial. From 1984 to 2000, the average water availability decreased to 33 km³ per year and from 2003 to 2004 to 20 km³ per year. Agriculture accounts for the withdrawal of 14 km³ per year (or 80% of total water use) and domestic withdrawals account for 2 km³ per year (12% of total water use). The Atlantic basin holds more than 97% of all available water with nearly 2,000 km³ per year. Agriculture also accounts for 80% of water use, while domestic use accounts for 14%. The Lake Titicaca basin receives 10 BCM per year, less than 1% of the total. In this basin, agriculture accounts for 66% of total water use, while domestic use accounts for 30%.

Key characteristics of the drainage basins

Source: INEI (2007)

External resources of water enter Peru though tributaries of the Amazon, in the Atlantic river basin, supplying 125 BCM annually. The main rivers are Napo, Tigre, Pastaza, Santiago, Morona, Cenepa, and Chinchipe.

ANA estimates the total amount of groundwater available on the coast to be between 35 and 40 km³. There is specific data available only for eight valleys on the coast with 9.0 km³ of groundwater available. Around 1.8 km³ of water are actually extracted on the coast. No sufficient information is available regarding groundwater availability and withdrawal in the highland and Amazon regions.

Groundwater withdrawal per sector in Peruvian coast (5)

Source: ANA

In 1980, the former National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA) established an inventory of Peru's water storage capacity, including lakes and dams. Peru has 12,201 lakes, 3,896 of which are located in the Pacific basin, 7,441 in the Atlantic basin, 841 in the Titicaca basin, and 23 in the closed basin of Warmiqucha. INRENA inventoried 186 lakes in operation with a total capacity of 3,028.07 million cubic metres and 342 studied lakes with a total capacity 3,953.04 million cubic metres. According to the inventory, the largest number of lakes in operation were located in the Pacific basin, with 105 lakes and a total capacity of 1,378.58 million cubic metres, followed by the Atlantic basin with 76 lakes and a capacity of 1604.73 million cubic metres. The Pacific basin also has the largest number of studied lagoons, with a total of 204 lakes and a total capacity of 616.62 million cubic metres, followed by the Atlantic basin with 133 lakes and a capacity of 3,006.42 cubic metres.

Peru also has 23 dams with a total capacity of 1,941.88 million cubic metres, and 238 studied dams with a total capacity of 44,028.04 million cubic metres. The Pacific basin has 21 dams in operation with a total capacity of 1,875.88 million cubic metres; the Atlantic basin has 2 dams with a capacity of 66,000 million cubic metres. The Pacific basin also has the largest number of studied dams, a total of 126 with a capacity of 17,200.60 million cubic metres. The Atlantic basin has 105 with a storage capacity of 26,274.83 million cubic metres.

The largest reservoirs are Poechos with a capacity of 1,000 million cubic metres, Tinajones with 320 million cubic metres, San Lorenzo with 258 million cubic metres, and El Fraile with 200 million cubic metres, all of them in the coastal region.

The gradual decrease in Peru's water quality is due to the release of untreated effluents from mining, industries, municipalities and polluted runoff from agriculture. Of the 53 rivers in the coastal area, 16 are polluted by lead, manganese and iron threatening irrigation and potable water supplies. In particular, the Ministry of Agriculture considers "alarming" the quality of seven rivers: the Mantaro and Tambo rivers in the Central Andes that drain towards the Amazonas; the small Moche River near the northern coastal city Trujillo and the Santa near the northern coastal city Chimbote; the Chillon and Rimac rivers near Lima; and the Chili River near Arequipa which is well known for its rafting. In the Mantaro basin alone 18 mining facilities discharge polluted water into the river.

Mining, which provided more than 60% of Peru's export earnings in 2006, is a major water user and polluter. It is estimated that mining uses about 5% of Peru's water. In addition, it severely affects water quality. It has been estimated that more than half of Peru's peasant communities have been affected by mining activities, leading to the creation of organizations such as the National Committee of Mine Affected Communities (CONACAMI). The government had to declare an environmental state of emergency at several mining sites due to environmental disasters. For example, in July 2008 it declared a state of emergency at a mine near Lima over fears that arsenic, lead and cadmium from its tailings dam could pollute the main water supply for the capital. In July 2010 the government declared another state of environmental emergency in the central mining district of Huancavelica after a wastewater storage dam of the Caudalosa Chica company collapsed and leaked water laden with heavy metals into local rivers. The city La Oroya on the Mantaro River in Central Peru where the company Doe Run operates a big mining complex has been ranked as one of the 10 most contaminated cities in the world in 2007. Furthermore, an estimated 100,000 small-scale informal miners pollute rivers with cyanide and mercury.

Often the exact scope of pollution is a matter of dispute. An example is the Yanacocha mine in the Andes, the largest and most profitable gold mine in Latin America that was created with the support of the International Finance Corporation (IFC). According to a report in 2000 by an organization called "Project Underground" levels of copper were 10 to 20 times higher than WHO standards and the acidity of the water was extremely high with a pH of 3.3 compared to 6.5, the highest acidity considered drinkable. According to local communities, fish and frogs had disappeared from the river, both of which were previously a food supply for the rural communities. Subsequently, an independent report by Stratus, a Colorado consultancy, found that the pollution from the mine "posed no threat to human health or to drinking water". But the mine's rapid expansion has affected farmers: Several irrigation channels have dried up, while extra sediment in rivers has killed trout.

In almost all cases, local communities are overwhelmingly opposed to mining because of its environmental impact on their livelihoods. An example are conflicts witnessed in Piura Province since 1993. A Canadian mining company departed shortly after a local referendum in Tambogrande in which over 93% voted against mining. When another company began exploration in Ayabaca and Huancabamba, this elicited new conflicts and a referendum held in September 2007, in which again over 90% of voters voted against mining. One of the main concerns of local and downstream communities relates to the effects that the mine would have on water quality and quantity. The company and the central government continued to insist, though, that the mine will go ahead.

Ineffective irrigation has generated salinization and drainage problems in 3,000 square kilometres of the coastal valleys (of a total irrigated area of 7,360 km²), jeopardizing land productivity and affecting the quality of Lima's water supply. Drainage problems are also affecting 1,500 km² in the Amazon region. In the highland and Amazon areas, excessive deforestation due to nomadic agriculture practices is causing erosion and soil degradation. In the Sierra 55%–60% of the land is affected, increasing the amount of soil transported downstream.

Domestic consumption accounts for 7% of water withdrawals in Peru. The water and sanitation sector in Peru has made significant advances in the last two decades, including an increase in access to an improved water source from 75% to 82% between 1990 and 2008 and an increase in access to improved sanitation from 54% to 68% during the same period. Progress has also been achieved in the disinfection of drinking water and in wastewater treatment. Despite these advances, water supply and sanitation services in Peru are characterized by low coverage in rural areas (61% for water 36% for sanitation in 2008) and poor quality of service, as well as the precarious financial situation of utilities.

About 80% of all water withdrawal in Peru is used for irrigation, yet much of this water (65%) is lost due to reliance on inefficient irrigation systems

Area with Irrigation Infrastructure and irrigated areas (km²)

Source: Portal Agrario (1994)

In 2006, 72% of Peru's total electricity generation (27.4 TWh) came from hydroelectric plants, with conventional thermal plants only in operation during peak load periods or when hydroelectric output is curtailed by weather events. Hydropower accounts for 48% of total installed capacity. Non-consumptive water withdrawal for hydropower generation accounts for 11,138 million m3 per year. The largest hydroelectric facility in the country is the 900 MW Mantaro Complex in southern Peru, which is operated by state-owned Electroperu. The two hydroelectric plants at the complex generate over one-third of Peru's total electricity supply.

There are 12,201 lakes and lagoons in Peru, 3,896 of which are located in the Pacific basin; 7,441 in the Atlantic basin, 841 in the Titicaca basin, and 23 in the Huarmicocha system. Peru contains approximately 50,000 km² of swamps and 45 km² of mangroves.Peru's wetlands play an important role for rural communities. These wetlands are the source for animal protein and for totora, a plant used in the artisan production of boats and floating devices. Estuaries are also fundamental for the reproduction of several marine species that are basic for the fishing industry. Other uses such as industrial production of algae and bird-watching tourism are not yet fully discovered. In 1996 the Government adopted a National Wetlands Conservation Strategy aimed at increasing the area of mangroves, moors, estuaries, and lagoons considered to be protected areas. Uncertainties about land ownership, industrial pollution, urban sprawl, and deforestation continue to threaten wetland integrity in Peru. The complete Pucchun Lagoon in Arequipa, 50 km², has been dried out for agricultural purposes. The Villa Swamp, located south of Lima, was reduced from its original 50 to 3 km² in 1989 due to urban sprawl.

The newly approved Water Law (Ley de Recursos Hídricos – LRH, published March 31, 2009) has enhanced the National Water Resources System (substituting Decree No. 1081) which now consist of ANA, a National Water Resources Court, River Basin Councils, regional and local governments and water users organizations. However, some institutions foreseen under the law, such as the River Basin Councils, remain to be created. The water law also establishes priority uses of water, re-defines water user rights, understands water as an economic good, defines sanctions, considers river basins as management units and incorporates groundwater management considerations. It is foreseen that subsidiary legislation (reglamentos) will complement the water law by specifying, for instance, the roles of each institution within the National Water Resources System.

The water law has been criticized by the Peruvian Peasant's Association claiming that it allows the privatization of water resources, does not involve local and regional governments in decision-making, promotes private operators in drinking water supply who would control water resources. They also claim that the interests of mining companies, industries and export-oriented agriculture influenced the drafting of the law.

Ley de Recursos Hídricos indeed gives a strong role to the national water authority ANA. Its 14 local branches, called Autoridades Administrativas del Agua, are accountable to the national authority and not to local or regional governments. The River Basin Councils (Consejos de Recursos Hídricos de Cuenca) are to be chaired by the president of the regional government, but they have only limited powers and their financial resources consist merely in a share of expected water abstraction fees that the National Water Agency would grant them.

The institutional framework for water resources management at national and river basin level is fragmented. The newly created National Water Authority (Autoridad Nacional del Agua – ANA) was established in December 2006 replacing the Water Resources Intendancy (Intendencia de Recursos Hídricos – IRH) and is responsible for the design and implementation of sustainable water resources policies and irrigation nationally. The creation of ANA improves the prospects for sound WRM, because it has a clear mandate for integrated, participative, basin-scale WRM, enjoys financial and administrative autonomy, is able to issue sanctions and will have local offices in river basins. Some of the modifications included are (i) ANA is the new water authority, however, it is still under the Ministry of Agriculture, which could hinder the impartiality required for sound WRM; (ii) ANA will have River Basin Authorities (Autoridades Administrativas del Agua—AAA), in each of Peru's 14 hydrographic regions and Local Water Authorities (Autoridades Locales de Agua—ALA) in selected river basins; and (iii) ANA is now also responsible for water quality.

However, a number of ministries have sectoral inputs on water resources management: Agriculture for Irrigation, Housing and Sanitation for domestic water use, Trade and Tourism for hot springs and mineral water, Energy and Mining for hydropower and mining operations, and the Council of Ministries for environmental policy and energy and water tariff and services regulation. In addition, the Ministry of Environment (MINAM) created in 2008 is responsible, among others, for the generation of hydro-meteorological information through its Meteorological and Hydrological National Service (Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrologia – SENAMHI).

The regional governments are responsible for the operation and maintenance (O&M) of major public hydraulic infrastructure (i.e., headwork such as dams and inter-basin transfers transferred to them as part of the decentralization process) and have some responsibilities for water quality. The regional government responsibilities poses a challenge for IWRM, since the administrative boundaries of the region do not coincide with those of the river basins. An additional challenge is that the regions are young and lack fundamental technical capacity and human resources to undertake IWRM.

Finally, the roles of other actors traditionally involved in WRM at the local level—some of them yet to be defined in the new institutionality—include (i) eight local offices of the Environmental Health General Department (Direccion General de Salud Ambiental—DIGESA), and (ii) Water User Boards (WUBs) responsible for operation and maintenance (O&M) of minor irrigation infrastructure.

In 2004, the Peruvian government proposed a National Water Resources Management Strategy, which is currently being discussed and is pending approval. The main objectives are:

• Institutional renovation and a clear legal framework to include (i) a resolution of current disparities between the Water Law and the Natural Resources Law, and transfer of irrigation system operation and maintenance to River Basin Authorities, promoting public participation in decision-making processes; and (ii) institutional development strategies that formalize water and pollution rights and establish a comprehensive tariff system to cover O&M activities.
• Integrated Management of Water Resources addressing both water supply and demand, taking into consideration environmental, social and economic factors. It includes a plan to modernize Peru's existing irrigation infrastructure with the goal of increasing the overall efficiency of irrigation systems from 35% to 45–50%.
• Increased Quality of Water Resources with a conservation initiative for upstream water resources aimed at decreasing sedimentation; it creates a pollution control authority to monitor agricultural and industrial discharges, promotes water recycling, and improves coastal drainage and salinity problems.
• Disaster Management and Mitigation including consistent weather monitoring, reforestation in strategic upstream areas, water channelling, and improved urban planning preventing settlements in high-risk areas.
• Capacity Building and Water Culture, and education program for preschool to college level students about the economic, social, and environmental value of water resources.
• Water Resources Information System strengthening of networks that monitor water quality and quantity; making accurate information publicly available. (See National Water Resources Management Strategy)

The Amazon Cooperation Treaty, signed in 1978 by Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela, aims at promoting sustainable use of natural resources, including water, in the Amazon Basin

On 25 June 2005, after the approval of a US$700,000 grant by the Global Environment Fund the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization, the General Secretariat of the Organization of American States and the United Nations Development Program agreed to sign the Integrated and Sustainable Management of Transboundary Water Resources in the Amazon River Basin Considering Climate Variability and Change Project. The project aims to strengthen the institutional framework for planning and executing, in a coordinated and coherent manner, activities for the protection and sustainable management of water resources in the Amazon Basin in the face of impacts caused by human action and ongoing climatic changes being experienced in the Basin.

Water pricing in Peru follows a complex system set out in the water law of 2009, which defines three types of fees and two types of tariffs: (i) fees paid for water abstraction from the environment (Retribuciones economicas por el uso del agua); (ii) fees paid for wastewater discharge to the environment (Retribuciones económicas por vertimiento de uso de agua residual tratada); (iii) tariffs for the use of water infrastructure; (iv) tariffs for water monitoring; and (v) tariffs for sectoral water distribution.

Tariffs for water distribution include irrigation tariffs and drinking water tariffs. These are historically the most important types of tariffs. Drinking water tariffs levied by utilities are approved by the national superintendency for water supply and sanitation, SUNASS. Tariffs are low compared to some neighboring countries, such as Brazil and Chile. Water bills are often not paid. (See water supply and sanitation in Peru). Irrigation tariffs are collected by water user boards. Water is rarely metered and therefore fees are mostly based on area and crop types rather than on volume of water used. Tariffs vary between US$2.2 per ha and US$25.55 per ha, and collection rates vary from 10% in the Amazon and 68% in the Costa region. Farmers contribute in cash through payment of the water tariff and in kind, through labor and materials, following ancestral practices.(See Irrigation in Peru)

All other fees and tariffs have to be approved by the National Water Agency as well as, in the case of abstraction and discharge fees, by the Ministry of Agriculture. The proceeds are to be used for environmental monitoring, prevention, control and remediation; water resources planning; and the operation and maintenance of infrastructure. The level of fees is to be differentiated depending on the type of use, taking into account social, economic and environmental factors. As of 2010, these new fees and tariffs were not yet being collected pending the setting of these fees through subsidiary legislation.

The Peruvian piedmont and coastline are prone to devastating floods and mudslides, mainly due to heavy precipitation on degraded upper basins, whereas the southern part of the country is particularly prone to droughts. Aside from natural causes, such as El Niño Southern Oscillation, the effects of droughts and floods have been exacerbated by manmade interventions including soil erosion stemming from poor cropping and grazing practices, deforestation, and poor land use-practices. El Niño hits Peru approximately once every seven years and consists of heavy winds and rainfall associated with devastating floods and landslides. In 1997–1998 the costs of damages reached US$2 billion. Droughts severely affect the southern coast, producing agricultural losses as well as limitations on human water consumption. Preventive laws and measures (related to zoning, deforestation, and so forth) are not enforced and there is no reliable early warning system. The consequence is increasing negative impacts from droughts and floods on the different regions, with an increasing impact on Peru's economy.

Although a thorough assessment of the net impacts on Peru's water resources is still lacking, some trends are discernible. The effects of climate change in Peru include more extreme weather conditions such as droughts and floods, El Niño Southern Oscillation, increased likelihood of flash fires, changes in the ability of ecosystems to store water, and the retreat of Andean glaciers. The effects of glacier retreat are different at the initial and final stages of glacier retreat—initially more water is available during the dry season, while flow declines below the initial level once the glacier has melted. (See Impacts of Glacier Retreat in the Andes:Documentary). High mountain ecosystems, including páramos (unique wetlands of the Northern Andes) and snowcapped terrains are among the environments most sensitive to climate change. These ecosystems have unique endemic flora and provide numerous valuable environmental goods and services. Data recently made available suggest that climate impacts have already altered the circulation patterns responsible for producing and moving water vapor to the region. These changes have likely contributed to the disappearance of high-altitude water bodies, as well as to the increased occurrence of natural and human-induced mountain fires.

The Program for Strengthening of National Capacities to Manage the Impact of Climate Change and Air Pollution (PROCLIM) together with the Ministry of Environment and the Netherlands Cooperation Agency published a model for adaptation that estimated the impacts of climate change climate for several river basins. For instance, in the Mantaro River Basin one scenario presents a possible increase (greater than 50%) in precipitation along the entire basin, particularly over the west central mountain range and the Chinchaycocha plateau. According to a second scenario, precipitations in the west central range could increase in more than 100% while in the eastern region they could be reduced by 20%. In the Piura River Basin there is a (i) tendency towards increase of the minimum temperature peaks and the average sea level; (ii) greater probability that the intensity of future El Nino Events will increase; (iii) there will be an occurrence of an El Nino Phenomena during the 2009–2015 period similar to the one of 1982–1983; (iv) a deficit in the balance of water is foreseen during the period 2005–2035; and (v) tendency towards lengthier and more frequent drought periods is noticeable. In the Cordillera Blanca, Santa River Basin precipitations will become the main water resource in view of the severe retreat of the area's tropical glaciers. Because of the tendencies towards temperature increase, it is expected that the runoff levels will increase until they reach a peak in the first half of the century, to then exhibit a sustained decline in water resources.

According to a 2008 survey of Radio RPP, only 37% of respondents think that water is scarce in Peru. Only 27% of respondents living in Lima—a city in the middle of a desert—believe water to be scarce in Lima. 72% of respondents throughout the country believe that Peru is affected by climate change. However, only 8% of respondents think that water scarcity is a consequence of Climate Change.

The government is currently looking into seawater desalination as a national priority to adapting to decreasing water availability. Peru's Government in planning a US$1.5 billion investment to build two desalination plants on Lima's coast to supply water to 1.5 million people.

The World Bank is collaborating with the Government of Peru through the National Water Resources Management Modernization Project (US$10 million). This project aims at strengthening the institutional capacity for integrated water resources management at the national level and in three river basins namely, Chancay-Lambayeque, Ica-Alto Pampas and Chili. The World Bank is also contributing US$85 million, out of a total of US$172.4 million, to a Subsectoral Irrigation Project (Programa Subsectorial de Irrigacion). Also, the Agricultural Research and Extension Adaptable Program Loan Phase 2 (US$69 million) aims to promote the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices in glacier-dependent watersheds.

In June 2007, the Global Environmental Facility approved the Regional Adaptation to the Impacts of Rapid Glacier Retreat in the Tropical Andes (Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru) Project. This project aims at implementing adaptation measures to meet the anticipated consequences of glacier retreat induced by climate change.

The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) contributes US$10 million to a Water Resources Management Modernization Project focused on three pilot river basins namely, Santa, Chira-Piura and Tacna. This project does not include any intervention at the national level. In June 2007, the IDB approved US$200 million for a Water Resources Reform Program (WRRP) that would include hydraulic structures, and institutional and legal reforms. In August 2007, the IDB approved an additional US$5 million to support capacity building efforts contained in the WRRP. The IDB is also implementing a water resources management plan for Peru's Maschón and Chonta watersheds. The objective of this US$1.2 million grant is to define the appropriate measures for improving integrated water resources management.

• Electricity sector in Peru
• Irrigation in Peru
• Water supply and sanitation in Peru
• Water pollution in Peru
• Impacts of Glacier Retreat in the Andes:Documentary

• Autoridad Nacional del Agua (National Water Agency)
• Ministry of Agriculture
• Instituto Nacional de Estadistica e Informatica del Perú (National Statistics Institute)
• Poverty, Agriculture and Water within the Andean Region

Peru has some of the greatest biodiversity in the world.

Founded in 2013, the NGO EcoSwell works on water and sanitation projects across Peru (amongst other sectors of work); they are based in the northwestern Lobitos district of the Talara region, an arid coastal area that faces water stress. To combat the challenges of derelict infrastructure and environmental degradation, EcoSwell primarily constructs physical WASH projects with the help of local residents and interns, including bio-remediation for wastewater management, dry toilets, grey water reuse, desalination, and groundwater monitoring. Their bottom-up approach to community mobilization focuses on the long-term sustainability of Peru's ecology, with a commitment to a steady-state economy.

While Peru accounts for about four per cent of the world's annual renewable water resources, over 98% of its water is available east of the Andes, in the Amazon region. The coastal area of Peru, with most of economic activities and more than half of the population, receives only 1.8% of the national freshwater renewable water resources. Economic and population growth are taking an increasing toll on water resources quantity and quality, especially in the coastal area of Peru.

The government of Peru is currently undertaking a major transformation of its water resources management from a centralized approach focused on irrigation development in the coastal area to a river basin integrated water resources management for the entire country. The 2009 Water Resources Law (Ley de Recursos Hídricos) and the draft National Water Resources Management Strategy of 2004 (Estrategia Nacional para la Gestión de los Recursos Hídricos Continentales del Perú) contain the necessary elements for Integrated Water Resources Management as stated in international good practices namely, integration of sectoral policies, participation of stakeholders, decentralization of management to the river basin level and recognition of water as a social and economic good. Despite the new law, several key challenges remain, including limited institutional capacity, increasing water stress in the coastal region, deteriorating water quality, poor efficiency in the irrigation sector, as well as inadequate access to and poor quality of water supply and sanitation.

The second half of the 20th century witnessed heavy public investments in dams in the Andes and associated irrigation infrastructure in the coastal region. For example, in the 1950s and 1960s, the San Lorenzo dam and Tinajones dam, the largest Peruvian dams, were built in the northern coastal region. Within the government the Ministry of Agriculture was given the responsibility to manage water resources, since irrigation was by far the largest water use. Its lead role was confirmed by the 1969 General Water Law No. 17752 (Ley General de Aguas—LGA) which defined the Ministry of Agriculture as the "National Water Authority". However, other laws—such as the General Hydrocarbon Law (DL 26221), the General Mining Law (DS 014-92-EM), the Law for Electricity Concessions (DL 25844)—also dealt with water resources on a sectorally fragmented basis within a centralized administrative system that gave little or no decision-making power to stakeholders at the local level. There was no legal basis for integrated water resources management at the level of each river basin, and consequently there were no institutions to implement such an integrated management. This began to change in the early 2000s with the approval of a Decentralization Law, a Regional Government Law and a Municipalities Law. In 2003 the government began transferring powers to the newly created regional governments, including for water quality management and the operation and maintenance of major public infrastructure, despite the limited institutional capacity of regional governments. A draft national water resources management strategy prepared in 2004 (Estrategia Nacional para la Gestion de los Recursos Hidricos Continentales del Peru) aimed at promoting integrated water resources management through a new institutional and legal framework. In this spirit a National Water Authority (Autoridad Nacional del Agua – ANA) was established in 2006 and its role was strengthened through the 2009 Water Resources Law (Ley de Recursos Hídricos – LRH). Implementation of the law and the creation of basin-level institutions with meaningful capacities and enforcement powers still remain a challenge. (See Legal and Institutional Framework below for more details)

Peru has a large amount of water resources, with 159 river basins and a per capita availability of 68,321 cubic meters (m³) in 2006. According to FAO the long-run average annual rainfall is 1,738 millimeters (mm). There is significant seasonal variability in river run-offs, two-thirds of which occur between January and April.

The Andes divide Peru into three natural drainage basins: Pacific basin (279,000 km²), Atlantic basin (959,000 km²) and Lake Titicaca basin (47,000 km²). According to the National Water Authority (Autoridad Nacional del Agua—ANA), the Pacific basin has 62 rivers; the Atlantic basin has 84 rivers; and Lake Titicaca basin has 13 rivers. The number of rivers in Peru varies depending on the source of information, because in some cases tributaries are counted as rivers in their own right and in other cases not.

According to ANA, the dry Pacific basin, with 37.4 km³ available per year, accounts for less than 2% of Peru's renewable water resources. Its 62 rivers flowing west from the Andes supply the bulk of the water to the coastal region. Of these rivers, only about 30% are perennial. From 1984 to 2000, the average water availability decreased to 33 km³ per year and from 2003 to 2004 to 20 km³ per year. Agriculture accounts for the withdrawal of 14 km³ per year (or 80% of total water use) and domestic withdrawals account for 2 km³ per year (12% of total water use). The Atlantic basin holds more than 97% of all available water with nearly 2,000 km³ per year. Agriculture also accounts for 80% of water use, while domestic use accounts for 14%. The Lake Titicaca basin receives 10 BCM per year, less than 1% of the total. In this basin, agriculture accounts for 66% of total water use, while domestic use accounts for 30%.

Key characteristics of the drainage basins

Source: INEI (2007)

External resources of water enter Peru though tributaries of the Amazon, in the Atlantic river basin, supplying 125 BCM annually. The main rivers are Napo, Tigre, Pastaza, Santiago, Morona, Cenepa, and Chinchipe.

ANA estimates the total amount of groundwater available on the coast to be between 35 and 40 km³. There is specific data available only for eight valleys on the coast with 9.0 km³ of groundwater available. Around 1.8 km³ of water are actually extracted on the coast. No sufficient information is available regarding groundwater availability and withdrawal in the highland and Amazon regions.

Groundwater withdrawal per sector in Peruvian coast (5)

Source: ANA

In 1980, the former National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA) established an inventory of Peru's water storage capacity, including lakes and dams. Peru has 12,201 lakes, 3,896 of which are located in the Pacific basin, 7,441 in the Atlantic basin, 841 in the Titicaca basin, and 23 in the closed basin of Warmiqucha. INRENA inventoried 186 lakes in operation with a total capacity of 3,028.07 million cubic metres and 342 studied lakes with a total capacity 3,953.04 million cubic metres. According to the inventory, the largest number of lakes in operation were located in the Pacific basin, with 105 lakes and a total capacity of 1,378.58 million cubic metres, followed by the Atlantic basin with 76 lakes and a capacity of 1604.73 million cubic metres. The Pacific basin also has the largest number of studied lagoons, with a total of 204 lakes and a total capacity of 616.62 million cubic metres, followed by the Atlantic basin with 133 lakes and a capacity of 3,006.42 cubic metres.

Peru also has 23 dams with a total capacity of 1,941.88 million cubic metres, and 238 studied dams with a total capacity of 44,028.04 million cubic metres. The Pacific basin has 21 dams in operation with a total capacity of 1,875.88 million cubic metres; the Atlantic basin has 2 dams with a capacity of 66,000 million cubic metres. The Pacific basin also has the largest number of studied dams, a total of 126 with a capacity of 17,200.60 million cubic metres. The Atlantic basin has 105 with a storage capacity of 26,274.83 million cubic metres.

The largest reservoirs are Poechos with a capacity of 1,000 million cubic metres, Tinajones with 320 million cubic metres, San Lorenzo with 258 million cubic metres, and El Fraile with 200 million cubic metres, all of them in the coastal region.

The gradual decrease in Peru's water quality is due to the release of untreated effluents from mining, industries, municipalities and polluted runoff from agriculture. Of the 53 rivers in the coastal area, 16 are polluted by lead, manganese and iron threatening irrigation and potable water supplies. In particular, the Ministry of Agriculture considers "alarming" the quality of seven rivers: the Mantaro and Tambo rivers in the Central Andes that drain towards the Amazonas; the small Moche River near the northern coastal city Trujillo and the Santa near the northern coastal city Chimbote; the Chillon and Rimac rivers near Lima; and the Chili River near Arequipa which is well known for its rafting. In the Mantaro basin alone 18 mining facilities discharge polluted water into the river.

Mining, which provided more than 60% of Peru's export earnings in 2006, is a major water user and polluter. It is estimated that mining uses about 5% of Peru's water. In addition, it severely affects water quality. It has been estimated that more than half of Peru's peasant communities have been affected by mining activities, leading to the creation of organizations such as the National Committee of Mine Affected Communities (CONACAMI). The government had to declare an environmental state of emergency at several mining sites due to environmental disasters. For example, in July 2008 it declared a state of emergency at a mine near Lima over fears that arsenic, lead and cadmium from its tailings dam could pollute the main water supply for the capital. In July 2010 the government declared another state of environmental emergency in the central mining district of Huancavelica after a wastewater storage dam of the Caudalosa Chica company collapsed and leaked water laden with heavy metals into local rivers. The city La Oroya on the Mantaro River in Central Peru where the company Doe Run operates a big mining complex has been ranked as one of the 10 most contaminated cities in the world in 2007. Furthermore, an estimated 100,000 small-scale informal miners pollute rivers with cyanide and mercury.

Often the exact scope of pollution is a matter of dispute. An example is the Yanacocha mine in the Andes, the largest and most profitable gold mine in Latin America that was created with the support of the International Finance Corporation (IFC). According to a report in 2000 by an organization called "Project Underground" levels of copper were 10 to 20 times higher than WHO standards and the acidity of the water was extremely high with a pH of 3.3 compared to 6.5, the highest acidity considered drinkable. According to local communities, fish and frogs had disappeared from the river, both of which were previously a food supply for the rural communities. Subsequently, an independent report by Stratus, a Colorado consultancy, found that the pollution from the mine "posed no threat to human health or to drinking water". But the mine's rapid expansion has affected farmers: Several irrigation channels have dried up, while extra sediment in rivers has killed trout.

In almost all cases, local communities are overwhelmingly opposed to mining because of its environmental impact on their livelihoods. An example are conflicts witnessed in Piura Province since 1993. A Canadian mining company departed shortly after a local referendum in Tambogrande in which over 93% voted against mining. When another company began exploration in Ayabaca and Huancabamba, this elicited new conflicts and a referendum held in September 2007, in which again over 90% of voters voted against mining. One of the main concerns of local and downstream communities relates to the effects that the mine would have on water quality and quantity. The company and the central government continued to insist, though, that the mine will go ahead.

Ineffective irrigation has generated salinization and drainage problems in 3,000 square kilometres of the coastal valleys (of a total irrigated area of 7,360 km²), jeopardizing land productivity and affecting the quality of Lima's water supply. Drainage problems are also affecting 1,500 km² in the Amazon region. In the highland and Amazon areas, excessive deforestation due to nomadic agriculture practices is causing erosion and soil degradation. In the Sierra 55%–60% of the land is affected, increasing the amount of soil transported downstream.

Domestic consumption accounts for 7% of water withdrawals in Peru. The water and sanitation sector in Peru has made significant advances in the last two decades, including an increase in access to an improved water source from 75% to 82% between 1990 and 2008 and an increase in access to improved sanitation from 54% to 68% during the same period. Progress has also been achieved in the disinfection of drinking water and in wastewater treatment. Despite these advances, water supply and sanitation services in Peru are characterized by low coverage in rural areas (61% for water 36% for sanitation in 2008) and poor quality of service, as well as the precarious financial situation of utilities.

About 80% of all water withdrawal in Peru is used for irrigation, yet much of this water (65%) is lost due to reliance on inefficient irrigation systems

Area with Irrigation Infrastructure and irrigated areas (km²)

Source: Portal Agrario (1994)

In 2006, 72% of Peru's total electricity generation (27.4 TWh) came from hydroelectric plants, with conventional thermal plants only in operation during peak load periods or when hydroelectric output is curtailed by weather events. Hydropower accounts for 48% of total installed capacity. Non-consumptive water withdrawal for hydropower generation accounts for 11,138 million m3 per year. The largest hydroelectric facility in the country is the 900 MW Mantaro Complex in southern Peru, which is operated by state-owned Electroperu. The two hydroelectric plants at the complex generate over one-third of Peru's total electricity supply.

There are 12,201 lakes and lagoons in Peru, 3,896 of which are located in the Pacific basin; 7,441 in the Atlantic basin, 841 in the Titicaca basin, and 23 in the Huarmicocha system. Peru contains approximately 50,000 km² of swamps and 45 km² of mangroves.Peru's wetlands play an important role for rural communities. These wetlands are the source for animal protein and for totora, a plant used in the artisan production of boats and floating devices. Estuaries are also fundamental for the reproduction of several marine species that are basic for the fishing industry. Other uses such as industrial production of algae and bird-watching tourism are not yet fully discovered. In 1996 the Government adopted a National Wetlands Conservation Strategy aimed at increasing the area of mangroves, moors, estuaries, and lagoons considered to be protected areas. Uncertainties about land ownership, industrial pollution, urban sprawl, and deforestation continue to threaten wetland integrity in Peru. The complete Pucchun Lagoon in Arequipa, 50 km², has been dried out for agricultural purposes. The Villa Swamp, located south of Lima, was reduced from its original 50 to 3 km² in 1989 due to urban sprawl.

The newly approved Water Law (Ley de Recursos Hídricos – LRH, published March 31, 2009) has enhanced the National Water Resources System (substituting Decree No. 1081) which now consist of ANA, a National Water Resources Court, River Basin Councils, regional and local governments and water users organizations. However, some institutions foreseen under the law, such as the River Basin Councils, remain to be created. The water law also establishes priority uses of water, re-defines water user rights, understands water as an economic good, defines sanctions, considers river basins as management units and incorporates groundwater management considerations. It is foreseen that subsidiary legislation (reglamentos) will complement the water law by specifying, for instance, the roles of each institution within the National Water Resources System.

The water law has been criticized by the Peruvian Peasant's Association claiming that it allows the privatization of water resources, does not involve local and regional governments in decision-making, promotes private operators in drinking water supply who would control water resources. They also claim that the interests of mining companies, industries and export-oriented agriculture influenced the drafting of the law.

Ley de Recursos Hídricos indeed gives a strong role to the national water authority ANA. Its 14 local branches, called Autoridades Administrativas del Agua, are accountable to the national authority and not to local or regional governments. The River Basin Councils (Consejos de Recursos Hídricos de Cuenca) are to be chaired by the president of the regional government, but they have only limited powers and their financial resources consist merely in a share of expected water abstraction fees that the National Water Agency would grant them.

The institutional framework for water resources management at national and river basin level is fragmented. The newly created National Water Authority (Autoridad Nacional del Agua – ANA) was established in December 2006 replacing the Water Resources Intendancy (Intendencia de Recursos Hídricos – IRH) and is responsible for the design and implementation of sustainable water resources policies and irrigation nationally. The creation of ANA improves the prospects for sound WRM, because it has a clear mandate for integrated, participative, basin-scale WRM, enjoys financial and administrative autonomy, is able to issue sanctions and will have local offices in river basins. Some of the modifications included are (i) ANA is the new water authority, however, it is still under the Ministry of Agriculture, which could hinder the impartiality required for sound WRM; (ii) ANA will have River Basin Authorities (Autoridades Administrativas del Agua—AAA), in each of Peru's 14 hydrographic regions and Local Water Authorities (Autoridades Locales de Agua—ALA) in selected river basins; and (iii) ANA is now also responsible for water quality.

However, a number of ministries have sectoral inputs on water resources management: Agriculture for Irrigation, Housing and Sanitation for domestic water use, Trade and Tourism for hot springs and mineral water, Energy and Mining for hydropower and mining operations, and the Council of Ministries for environmental policy and energy and water tariff and services regulation. In addition, the Ministry of Environment (MINAM) created in 2008 is responsible, among others, for the generation of hydro-meteorological information through its Meteorological and Hydrological National Service (Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrologia – SENAMHI).

The regional governments are responsible for the operation and maintenance (O&M) of major public hydraulic infrastructure (i.e., headwork such as dams and inter-basin transfers transferred to them as part of the decentralization process) and have some responsibilities for water quality. The regional government responsibilities poses a challenge for IWRM, since the administrative boundaries of the region do not coincide with those of the river basins. An additional challenge is that the regions are young and lack fundamental technical capacity and human resources to undertake IWRM.

Finally, the roles of other actors traditionally involved in WRM at the local level—some of them yet to be defined in the new institutionality—include (i) eight local offices of the Environmental Health General Department (Direccion General de Salud Ambiental—DIGESA), and (ii) Water User Boards (WUBs) responsible for operation and maintenance (O&M) of minor irrigation infrastructure.

In 2004, the Peruvian government proposed a National Water Resources Management Strategy, which is currently being discussed and is pending approval. The main objectives are:

• Institutional renovation and a clear legal framework to include (i) a resolution of current disparities between the Water Law and the Natural Resources Law, and transfer of irrigation system operation and maintenance to River Basin Authorities, promoting public participation in decision-making processes; and (ii) institutional development strategies that formalize water and pollution rights and establish a comprehensive tariff system to cover O&M activities.
• Integrated Management of Water Resources addressing both water supply and demand, taking into consideration environmental, social and economic factors. It includes a plan to modernize Peru's existing irrigation infrastructure with the goal of increasing the overall efficiency of irrigation systems from 35% to 45–50%.
• Increased Quality of Water Resources with a conservation initiative for upstream water resources aimed at decreasing sedimentation; it creates a pollution control authority to monitor agricultural and industrial discharges, promotes water recycling, and improves coastal drainage and salinity problems.
• Disaster Management and Mitigation including consistent weather monitoring, reforestation in strategic upstream areas, water channelling, and improved urban planning preventing settlements in high-risk areas.
• Capacity Building and Water Culture, and education program for preschool to college level students about the economic, social, and environmental value of water resources.
• Water Resources Information System strengthening of networks that monitor water quality and quantity; making accurate information publicly available. (See National Water Resources Management Strategy)

The Amazon Cooperation Treaty, signed in 1978 by Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela, aims at promoting sustainable use of natural resources, including water, in the Amazon Basin

On 25 June 2005, after the approval of a US$700,000 grant by the Global Environment Fund the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization, the General Secretariat of the Organization of American States and the United Nations Development Program agreed to sign the Integrated and Sustainable Management of Transboundary Water Resources in the Amazon River Basin Considering Climate Variability and Change Project. The project aims to strengthen the institutional framework for planning and executing, in a coordinated and coherent manner, activities for the protection and sustainable management of water resources in the Amazon Basin in the face of impacts caused by human action and ongoing climatic changes being experienced in the Basin.

Water pricing in Peru follows a complex system set out in the water law of 2009, which defines three types of fees and two types of tariffs: (i) fees paid for water abstraction from the environment (Retribuciones economicas por el uso del agua); (ii) fees paid for wastewater discharge to the environment (Retribuciones económicas por vertimiento de uso de agua residual tratada); (iii) tariffs for the use of water infrastructure; (iv) tariffs for water monitoring; and (v) tariffs for sectoral water distribution.

Tariffs for water distribution include irrigation tariffs and drinking water tariffs. These are historically the most important types of tariffs. Drinking water tariffs levied by utilities are approved by the national superintendency for water supply and sanitation, SUNASS. Tariffs are low compared to some neighboring countries, such as Brazil and Chile. Water bills are often not paid. (See water supply and sanitation in Peru). Irrigation tariffs are collected by water user boards. Water is rarely metered and therefore fees are mostly based on area and crop types rather than on volume of water used. Tariffs vary between US$2.2 per ha and US$25.55 per ha, and collection rates vary from 10% in the Amazon and 68% in the Costa region. Farmers contribute in cash through payment of the water tariff and in kind, through labor and materials, following ancestral practices.(See Irrigation in Peru)

All other fees and tariffs have to be approved by the National Water Agency as well as, in the case of abstraction and discharge fees, by the Ministry of Agriculture. The proceeds are to be used for environmental monitoring, prevention, control and remediation; water resources planning; and the operation and maintenance of infrastructure. The level of fees is to be differentiated depending on the type of use, taking into account social, economic and environmental factors. As of 2010, these new fees and tariffs were not yet being collected pending the setting of these fees through subsidiary legislation.

The Peruvian piedmont and coastline are prone to devastating floods and mudslides, mainly due to heavy precipitation on degraded upper basins, whereas the southern part of the country is particularly prone to droughts. Aside from natural causes, such as El Niño Southern Oscillation, the effects of droughts and floods have been exacerbated by manmade interventions including soil erosion stemming from poor cropping and grazing practices, deforestation, and poor land use-practices. El Niño hits Peru approximately once every seven years and consists of heavy winds and rainfall associated with devastating floods and landslides. In 1997–1998 the costs of damages reached US$2 billion. Droughts severely affect the southern coast, producing agricultural losses as well as limitations on human water consumption. Preventive laws and measures (related to zoning, deforestation, and so forth) are not enforced and there is no reliable early warning system. The consequence is increasing negative impacts from droughts and floods on the different regions, with an increasing impact on Peru's economy.

Although a thorough assessment of the net impacts on Peru's water resources is still lacking, some trends are discernible. The effects of climate change in Peru include more extreme weather conditions such as droughts and floods, El Niño Southern Oscillation, increased likelihood of flash fires, changes in the ability of ecosystems to store water, and the retreat of Andean glaciers. The effects of glacier retreat are different at the initial and final stages of glacier retreat—initially more water is available during the dry season, while flow declines below the initial level once the glacier has melted. (See Impacts of Glacier Retreat in the Andes:Documentary). High mountain ecosystems, including páramos (unique wetlands of the Northern Andes) and snowcapped terrains are among the environments most sensitive to climate change. These ecosystems have unique endemic flora and provide numerous valuable environmental goods and services. Data recently made available suggest that climate impacts have already altered the circulation patterns responsible for producing and moving water vapor to the region. These changes have likely contributed to the disappearance of high-altitude water bodies, as well as to the increased occurrence of natural and human-induced mountain fires.

The Program for Strengthening of National Capacities to Manage the Impact of Climate Change and Air Pollution (PROCLIM) together with the Ministry of Environment and the Netherlands Cooperation Agency published a model for adaptation that estimated the impacts of climate change climate for several river basins. For instance, in the Mantaro River Basin one scenario presents a possible increase (greater than 50%) in precipitation along the entire basin, particularly over the west central mountain range and the Chinchaycocha plateau. According to a second scenario, precipitations in the west central range could increase in more than 100% while in the eastern region they could be reduced by 20%. In the Piura River Basin there is a (i) tendency towards increase of the minimum temperature peaks and the average sea level; (ii) greater probability that the intensity of future El Nino Events will increase; (iii) there will be an occurrence of an El Nino Phenomena during the 2009–2015 period similar to the one of 1982–1983; (iv) a deficit in the balance of water is foreseen during the period 2005–2035; and (v) tendency towards lengthier and more frequent drought periods is noticeable. In the Cordillera Blanca, Santa River Basin precipitations will become the main water resource in view of the severe retreat of the area's tropical glaciers. Because of the tendencies towards temperature increase, it is expected that the runoff levels will increase until they reach a peak in the first half of the century, to then exhibit a sustained decline in water resources.

According to a 2008 survey of Radio RPP, only 37% of respondents think that water is scarce in Peru. Only 27% of respondents living in Lima—a city in the middle of a desert—believe water to be scarce in Lima. 72% of respondents throughout the country believe that Peru is affected by climate change. However, only 8% of respondents think that water scarcity is a consequence of Climate Change.

The government is currently looking into seawater desalination as a national priority to adapting to decreasing water availability. Peru's Government in planning a US$1.5 billion investment to build two desalination plants on Lima's coast to supply water to 1.5 million people.

The World Bank is collaborating with the Government of Peru through the National Water Resources Management Modernization Project (US$10 million). This project aims at strengthening the institutional capacity for integrated water resources management at the national level and in three river basins namely, Chancay-Lambayeque, Ica-Alto Pampas and Chili. The World Bank is also contributing US$85 million, out of a total of US$172.4 million, to a Subsectoral Irrigation Project (Programa Subsectorial de Irrigacion). Also, the Agricultural Research and Extension Adaptable Program Loan Phase 2 (US$69 million) aims to promote the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices in glacier-dependent watersheds.

In June 2007, the Global Environmental Facility approved the Regional Adaptation to the Impacts of Rapid Glacier Retreat in the Tropical Andes (Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru) Project. This project aims at implementing adaptation measures to meet the anticipated consequences of glacier retreat induced by climate change.

The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) contributes US$10 million to a Water Resources Management Modernization Project focused on three pilot river basins namely, Santa, Chira-Piura and Tacna. This project does not include any intervention at the national level. In June 2007, the IDB approved US$200 million for a Water Resources Reform Program (WRRP) that would include hydraulic structures, and institutional and legal reforms. In August 2007, the IDB approved an additional US$5 million to support capacity building efforts contained in the WRRP. The IDB is also implementing a water resources management plan for Peru's Maschón and Chonta watersheds. The objective of this US$1.2 million grant is to define the appropriate measures for improving integrated water resources management.

• Electricity sector in Peru
• Irrigation in Peru
• Water supply and sanitation in Peru
• Water pollution in Peru
• Impacts of Glacier Retreat in the Andes:Documentary

• Autoridad Nacional del Agua (National Water Agency)
• Ministry of Agriculture
• Instituto Nacional de Estadistica e Informatica del Perú (National Statistics Institute)
• Poverty, Agriculture and Water within the Andean Region

It has been estimated that Peru has favorable conditions for the development of solar energy projects. However, the country's solar potential has not been exploited yet. In the mountain ranges located in the South, solar energy reaches average levels above 6 kWh/m2/day, which are among the highest worldwide.

The principal environmental issues in Peru are water pollution, soil erosion, pollution and deforestation. Although these issues are problematic and equally destructive, the Peruvian Environmental ministry has been developing regulation and laws to decrease the amount of pollution created in major cities and have been making policies in order to decrease the present deforestation rate in Peru.

The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) estimates that the economic losses related to climate change could reach over 15% of national gross domestic product (GDP) by 2100. In 2010, Peruvian greenhouse gas emissions represented only 0.4% of global emissions. However, emissions are rising nationwide – particularly in the energy and transport sectors. In an effort to combat this, the Government of Peru approved a law to establish a national greenhouse gas inventory system called INFOCARBONO. INFOCARBONO will enable different ministries to include greenhouse gas management in their work.

Deforestation is a growing problem in the world today, especially concerning the Amazonian rainforest. In recent years deforestation has increased and deforestation now causes about 18% of green house emissions. Peru has the fourth largest area of rainforest in the world, which covers nearly 60% of its territory (70 million hectares). The deforestation rate in Peru is 0.35–0.5%, which is approximately 250,000 hectares cut down annually. Deforestation in Peru is largely a result of subsistence farming resulting from migrant farmers exploiting the squatter's law which allows citizens to get public land if they can prove that they have lived there for 5 years. More deforestation though, is caused by both legal and illegal logging, mining, petroleum drilling and road development.

Antonio Brack Egg, the Environmental minister in Peru, has said that deforestation is mostly caused by Andean farmers migrating to the Amazon, by new roads and gold mining, he plays down the contribution to deforestation caused by oil and gas companies.

The Peruvian government has said that 80% of Peru's primary forest can be saved or protected. Mr. Brack has said that his ministry has calculated that Peru needs about $25 million a year for the next 10 years to be able to conserve at least 54 million hectares. That the Peruvian government has committed $5 million a year and is looking for $20 million a year from the international community. He continues that 52 million hectares will be divided into 4 parts, 17 million hectares of national parks which are already in existence, 12 million hectares for 42 indigenous groups, 12 million hectares for sustainable forestry development, and 5 million for ecotourism. Germany has already committed $5 million for the national Parks, Holland is interested in funding for indigenous groups and Brack is hoping for funds from Britain, Japan and Finland. The Environmental minister is also asking for 3,000 environmental police to try and stop deforestation in remote areas.

Peru had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 14th globally out of 172 countries.

• Total forest area: 68,742,000 ha• percentage of land area: 53.7%• Primary forest cover: 61,065,000 ha• percentage of land area: 47.7%• percentage total forest area: 88.8%

Deforestation Rates, 2000–2005

• Annual change in forest cover:-94,200 ha• Annual deforestation rate:-0.1%• Change in deforestation rate since '90s: 1.3%• Total forest loss since 1990:-1,414,000 ha• Total forest loss since 1990:-2.0%

Primary or "Old-growth" forests

• Annual loss of primary forests:-224600 ha• Annual deforestation rate:-0.4%• Change in deforestation rate since '90s: 214.7%• Primary forest loss since 1990:-1,123,000 ha• Primary forest loss since 1990:-2.9%

Forest Classification

• Public: 83.1%• Private: 15.2%• Other: 1.7%• Use• Production: 36.7%• Protection: 0.5%• Conservation: 26.9%• Social services: n.s.%• Multiple purpose: 26%• None or unknown: 9.9

Forest Area Breakdown

• Total area: 68,742,000 ha• Primary: 61,065,000 ha• Modified natural: 6,923,000 ha• Semi-natural: n/a• Production plantation: 754,000 ha• Production plantation: n/a

Plantations

• Plantations, 2005: 754,000 ha• percentage of total forest cover: 1.1%• Annual change rate (00-05): 7,800,000 ha

• Carbon storage

• Above-ground biomass: n/a M t• Below-ground biomass: n/a M t

Area annually affected by

• Fire: 35,000 ha• Insects: n/a• Diseases: n/a

Number of tree species in IUCN Red List

• Number of native tree species: 2,500• Critically endangered: 33• Endangered: 14• Vulnerable: 54

Wood removal 2005

• Industrial roundwood: 1,891,000 m3 o.b.• Wood fuel: 8,898,000 m3 o.b.

Value of forest products, 2005

• Industrial roundwood: $4,409,000• Wood fuel: n/a• Non-wood forest products (NWFPs): n/a• Total Value: $4,409,000

Air pollution is a big problem in Peru, especially in Lima, the capital city, which is caused by industrial activity and vehicle emissions. In August 2006, air pollution in Lima surpassed the international standard by 122.1% The average concentration of PTS reached 166.57 micrograms per cubic meter, the international standard is 77 micrograms per cubic meter. In 2009, 1.5 tons of lead and 810 tons of sulphur dioxide, were emitted daily, which is four times the maximum allowed under Peruvian legislation.The Peruvian government has created an alert system for high levels of pollution. There are three levels: watch, danger and emergency. During an emergency, children, pregnant women, the elderly and the ailing may be asked to stay indoors. Those who are healthy enough to continue with their lives outside are advised to cover their mouths and noses with scarves or handkerchiefs—but not facemasks, because according to government spokesperson Carlos Rojas "people don't want images that further dramatize the situation." Also Peru is using "super tree" technology, created by Tierra Nuestra to try and fight the air pollution in the major cities. The super tree acts like 1200 real trees, purifying the air. It sucks the outside air, and under thermodynamic pressure it combines the toxic particles in the air with water, and then pumps out clean air. Unfortunately, there are byproduct to the process, which include mud and non potable water. The Super Tree cleans approximately 200,000 cubic meters of air per day, eliminating air pollutions like carbon dioxide.

Water pollution sources in Peru include industrial waste, sewage and oil related waste. Peru has 1746 cu km of renewable water resources and 86% of this water is used for farming and 7% for industrial activity. In urban areas only 87% and in rural areas 62% of the population have access to clean water. In major cities 3.0 million tons of waste per year is created. President Alan García campaigned for a "water for all" strategic program, which proposed investment in 185 water supply and sanitation projects. The objective of this program is to expand potable water services from 76% to 88% of households; Sanitation from 57% to 77%; and sewage from 22% to 100% by 2015.Lake Titicaca is a specific concern to Puno in southeastern Peru because of its spiritual and historical significance. Contamination and pollution of the lake seriously affects the health of those that depend on it because current monitoring and testing of the lake is primitive and underfunded. Because of violence in and around the area the government is only now addressing the problem.According to the Oxfam report, more than half of Peru's rivers are extremely polluted in the North the Chillón, Yauli and Mantaro in the central region; and the Chili River in the South.

Peru's topography makes it susceptible to soil erosion. The coast of Peru is subject to wind erosion and water erosion is dominant in Sierra. Erosion also occurs in the High Selva when vegetation is cleared and in Low Selva where they get much rain on areas under slash and burn practises. The use of contoured lines, cover crops and mulching can control erosion to some extent depending on the climate and the slope. In addition, traditional methods can be used to prevent erosion like terracing and agroforestry.

Parts of Peru are located in vast deserts, limiting water accessibility. While there has been an emphasis within the country on improving infrastructure to increase water access and restore watersheds, much of Peru still remains under-served, with over 1.5 million people estimated to have no running water in their homes. A 2015 UN Water Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking Water report stated that Peru has made significant improvements within the last fifteen years to promote sanitation and improve access to water. Water access, however, is still unequal; some Peruvians pay 1.3 sols (.40 USD) for one cubic meter of running water, while poorer citizens who rely on water delivery trucks to bring them their resources pay around 20 sols ($6 USD) for one cubic meter of running water, an over 1500% increase. Water delivered in Peru tends to be unsanitary and non-potable. However, wealthier citizens are more easily able to treat water in their homes, while poorer citizens often lack the resources to properly treat their water.

Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River. Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima. At 1,285,216 km² (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in the world, and the third largest in South America.

Peruvian territory was home to several cultures during the ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE. Notable pre-colonial cultures and civilizations include the Caral–Supe civilization (the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of the cradles of civilization), the Nazca culture, the Wari and Tiwanaku empires, the Kingdom of Cusco, and the Inca Empire, the largest known state in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and Charles V established a viceroyalty with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital in Lima. Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of the National University of San Marcos in Lima in 1551.