Mexico community action

Renewable energy in Mexico contributes to 26 percent of electricity generation in Mexico. As of 2009, electricity generation from renewable energy comes from biomass, hydro power, geothermal, solar power and wind. There is a long term effort established to increase the use of renewable energy sources. The amount of geothermal energy used and harvested, places Mexico as number four in the world.

As the importance of clean sustainable energy becomes more prevalent, the country and government officials continue to invest in research and innovations to continue to allow Mexico to be a leading example of renewable energy. Predictions based on current energy standings lead the country to anticipate by 2035, the 26 percent renewable energy in Mexico will rise to 35 percent.

Not only will this prove a more sustainable future it also increases jobs in rural areas. Jobs increased by 14 percent within the last 8 years in the renewable energy sector. With the objection to create more in-home jobs for residents of Mexico, an increase in sustainable energy, results in lower demand for conventional fuels such as fuel oil, petrol gas, coal and natural gas. With lower demand for these fuels, mainly gasoline and diesel and on the rise jet fuel, this will result in a lower need for imports. With relying on fewer imports, national security is higher.

Solar power in Mexico has the potential to produce vast amounts of energy. 70% of the country has an insolation of greater than 4.5 kWh/m²/day. Using 15% efficient photovoltaics, a square 25 km (16 mi) on each side in the state of Chihuahua or the Sonoran Desert (0.01% of Mexico) could supply all of Mexico's electricity.

Solar power in Mexico has the potential to produce vast amounts of energy. 70% of the country has an insolation of greater than 4.5 kWh/m²/day. Using 15% efficient photovoltaics, a square 25 km (16 mi) on each side in the state of Chihuahua or the Sonoran Desert (0.01% of Mexico) could supply all of Mexico's electricity.

Mexico is rapidly growing its production of wind power. In 2016, its installed capacity had reached 3,527 MW, increasing to 8,128 MW in 2020.

In 2008, there were three wind farms in the country. The Eurus Wind Farm was the largest wind farm in Latin America. 18 of 27 wind farms construction projects were based in La Ventosa in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca. According to the Mexican Wind Energy Association, Mexico was predicted to progress to rank twentieth worldwide in wind capacity by the end of 2012, and to produce four percent of the country's total electricity production. It also projected that the nation would have 12 GW (16,000,000 hp) of wind generation capacity by 2020, and would be able to provide fifteen percent of Mexico's production. Brian Gardner, Economist Intelligence Unit's energy analyst, said, "With strong wind through the south, consistent sunlight in the north and a stable market, Mexico is well positioned for continued renewables growth". Wind power is in partial competition with Solar power in Mexico.

Climate change in Mexico is expected to have widespread impacts: with significant decreases in precipitation and increases in temperatures. This will put pressure on the economy, people and the biodiversity of many parts of the country, which have largely arid or hot climates. Already climate change has impacted agriculture, biodiversity, farmer livelihoods, and migration, as well as water, health, air pollution, traffic disruption from floods, and housing vulnerability to landslides.

Altered precipitation patterns and warming temperatures have led to economic insecurity in Mexico, particularly for smallholder farmers who grow Mexico's economically and culturally important crops: maize and coffee. Climate change impacts are especially severe in Mexico City, due to increases in air pollution. Ecological impacts of climate change within Mexico include reductions in landscape connectivity and shifting migratory patterns of animals. Furthermore, climate change in Mexico is tied to worldwide trade and economic processes which relate directly to global food security.

As required by the Constitution, the electricity sector is federally owned, with the Federal Electricity Commission (Comisión Federal de Electricidad or CFE) essentially controlling the whole sector; private participation and foreign companies are allowed to operate in the country only through specific service contracts. Attempts to reform the sector have traditionally faced strong political and social resistance in Mexico, where subsidies for residential consumers absorb substantial fiscal resources.

The electricity sector in Mexico relies heavily on thermal sources (75% of total installed capacity), followed by hydropower generation (19%). Although exploitation of solar, wind, and biomass resources has a large potential, geothermal energy is the only renewable source (excluding hydropower) with a significant contribution to the energy mix (2% of total generation capacity). Expansion plans for the period 2006-2015 estimate the addition of some 14.8 GW of new generation capacity by the public sector, with a predominance of combined cycles.

Installed electricity capacity in 2008 was 58 GW. Of the installed capacity, 75.3% is thermal, 19% hydro, 2.4% nuclear (the single nuclear power plant Laguna Verde) and 3.3% renewable other than hydro. The general trend in thermal generation is a decline in petroleum-based fuels and a growth in natural gas and coal. Since Mexico is a net importer of natural gas, higher levels of natural gas consumption (i.e. for power generation) will likely depend upon higher imports from either the United States or via liquefied natural gas (LNG).

Gross generation was 234 TWh that same year (not including cogeneration and autogeneration), with 79.2% coming from conventional thermal sources, 16.6% from hydroelectricity, 4.2% from nuclear power and 3% from geothermal sources.

The expansion program contemplated by SENER for the period 2008-2017 includes the addition of 14,794 MW by the public service: 14,033 MW by CFE and 761 MW by LFC (Luz y Fuerza del Centro). Self-supply and cogeneration will add another 2,490 MW in new capacity. Total public installed capacity in 2017 is estimated at 61,074 MW, 40% and 21% of which would be combined-cycles and hydroelectric plants respectively. However, the deactivation of LFC on October 10, 2009, is likely to change this figure.

In 2009, 4,000 MW were already compromised (i.e. with secured financing). The table below summarizes the projects that are currently (September 2009) under construction:

Source: SENER Statistics

Source: Secretaría de Energía with data from Comisión Federal de Electricidad and Luz y Fuerza del Centro
¹ Thermoelectric power plants (residual fuel oil, natural gas and diesel)
² Installed capacity of Independent Power Producers.
³ Dual power plants can operate with coal or fuel oil
^P Preliminary

The external electricity trade is carried out through nine interconnections between the United States and Mexico and one interconnection with Belize. These connections have primarily been used to import and export electricity during emergencies. In 2007, Mexico exported 1.3 TWh of electricity to the United States, while importing 0.6 TWh.

Companies have built power plants near the United States - Mexico border with the aim of exporting generation to the United States. There are also plans to connect Mexico with Guatemala and Belize as part of the Central American Interconnection System. The 400 kV interconnection line Mexico - Guatemala was commissioned in April 2009 and has an estimated transmission capacity of 200 MW from Mexico to Guatemala and 70 MW in the opposite direction.

CFE is not a part of the North American Electric Reliability Corporation, though its transmission system in northern Baja California is part of the Western Electricity Coordinating Council, and it also has a few other interconnections across the border with the United States.

Consumption of electricity in 2008 was 184 TWh, which corresponds to 1,655 kWh per capita. Consumption share by sector was as follows:

• Residential: 26%
• Industrial: 59% (38% for mid-sized industry and 21% for large industry)
• Commercial: 7%
• Agriculture: 4%
• Services: 4%

Electricity demand has grown steadily in the last decade and the Energy Secretariat (SENER) forecasts that consumption will grow by 3.3% a year for the next ten years, reaching 281.5 TWh in 2017. Demand growth forecasts have been revised down, from an estimated 4.8% a year in the projections from 2006, due to the expected effects of the economic crisis on energy demand.

In 2008, the installed reserve margin (RM) in the National Interconnected System (SIN) was 45.8%, while the operating reserve margin (ORM) was 21.3%. It is estimated that both reserve margins will remain high during the 2009-2013 period. However, from 2014, the RM is expected to decrease to 29.2%, with the ORM reaching an 8.3%. Those values would be about 25% and 6% respectively in 2017. The commissioning of the Agua Prieta II, Norte II, Norte III, Noreste and Valle de Mexico II and III is essential to avoid power deficits in the northern and central parts of the country. However, irrespective of the reserve margins in the SIN, there are restrictions in transmission capacity that generate bottlenecks or the need to import power.

Total electricity coverage in Mexico is 98.7% (2015). With 99.7% coverage in urban areas with more than 100,000 inhabitants; 99.3% in locales with 15,000-99,999 inhabitants; 98.8% in areas with 2,500-14,999 inhabitants and 96.1% in locales with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants.

In 2008, the average number of interruptions per subscriber was 2.3 for CFE and 4.2 for LFC. Duration of interruptions per subscriber was 2.2 hours for CFE and 3 for LFC.

Total electricity losses in 2008 were 11% for CFE and as high as 32% for LFC.

The Energy Secretariat (SENER) is in charge of defining the energy policy of the country within the framework defined by the Constitution. The Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) is, since 1995, the main regulatory agency of the electricity and gas sector. However, CRE's attributions are limited since CFE (Federal Electricity Commission) and LFC (Central Light and Power) are outside its scope.

The generation sector was opened to private participation in 1992. However, the Comisión Federal de la Electricidad (CFE), the state-owned utility, is still the dominant player in the generation sector, with two-thirds of installed capacity. As of the end of 2008, private generators held about 23 GW of generation capacity, mostly consisting of combined-cycle, gas-fired turbines (CCGFT). Private generators have to sell all their output to CFE since they are not allowed to sell directly to users. There is indeed a commercialization monopoly controlled by CFE.

In the period between 1997 and 2009, CRE has awarded 22 permits for Independent Power Producers (IPP), for a total of 13 GW. Total private generation permits awarded by CRE as of September 2009 are summarized in the table below:

CFE holds a monopoly on electricity transmission and distribution in the country. CFE operates the national transmission grid, composed of 27,000 miles (43,000 km) of high voltage lines, 28,000 miles (45,000 km) of medium voltage lines, and 370,000 miles (600,000 km) of low voltage distribution lines, through one of its departments, the Centro Nacional de Control de la Energía (CENACE).

The two main government agencies in charge of developing renewable energy resources are SEMARNAT and SENER. The Environment and Natural Resources Secretariat (SEMARNAT) is responsible for environmental policy and the preservation of renewable and non-renewable resources, while SENER defines the national energy policy. CONAE, the National Commission for Energy Savings, is responsible for promoting energy savings and energy efficiency. Finally, SEDESOL, the National Secretariat for Social Development, includes the promotion and use of renewable energy in some of their projects.

The Renewable Energy Development and Financing for Energy Transition Law (LAERFTE), which entered into force on November 28, 2008, mandated SENER to produce a National Strategy for Energy Transition and Sustainable Energy Use and a Special Program for Renewable Energy. The Special Program contains tentative targets for renewable generation for different technologies. Those targets will be revised as SENER and CRE advance in the completion of the activities included in the law.

About 19% of the electricity produced in Mexico comes from hydroelectric resources. The largest hydro plant in Mexico is the 2,400 MW Manuel Moreno Torres (Chicoasén Dam) in Chicoasén, Chiapas, in the Grijalva River. This is the world's fourth most productive hydroelectric plant. The 750 MW El Cajon hydroelectric plant in Nayarit, which started operations in November 2006, is the latest completed large project.

The country has an important mini-hydro potential, estimated at 3,250 MW (in the states of Chiapas, Veracruz, Puebla and Tabasco) In 2009, there were 22 private mini-hydro installations (12 in operation, 2 inactive and 8 under construction), adding up to a total of 83.5 MW in operation, with 105 MW under development. The number of publicly owned hydro plants in 2009 was 42: 31 of them (270MW) belong to CFE, while the remaining 11 (23.4MW) belong to LFC.

Mexico is the country with the world's third largest solar potential. The country's gross solar potential is estimated at 5 kWh/m² daily, which corresponds to 50 times the national electricity generation. Currently, there is over 1 million square meters of solar thermal panels installed in Mexico, while in 2005, there were 115,000 square meters of solar PV (photo-voltaic). It is expected that in 2012 there will be 1.8 million square meters of installed solar thermal panels.

The project named SEGH-CFE 1, located in Puerto Libertad, Sonora, Northwest of Mexico, will have capacity of 46.8 MW from an array of 187,200 solar panels when complete in 2013.

Wind power production is still very limited in Mexico, although the country's potential is estimated to be very high. Three main areas for wind generation have been identified: the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the state of Oaxaca; La Rumorosa, in the state of Baja California; The area of the Gulf of California, which includes Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora and Sinaloa, the Yucatán Peninsula, and the states of Zacatecas, Hidalgo, Veracruz.

In 2012, according to SENER, CFE will have 593MW of installed wind generation capacity in Mexico. Currently, there are several projects in operation and under development. The tables below show both the wind farms that have already been committed and some of the potential ones: in Mexico some groups are promoting wind power through outreach activities to increase population awareness of renewable energies.

Source: SENER 2009, Programa especial para el aprovechamiento de energías renovables

Source: SENER 2009, Programa especial para el aprovechamiento de energías renovables

Mexico has a large geothermal potential due to its intense tectonic and volcanic activity. This potential has been estimated at 1,395 MW by CFE, although this figure is likely to be much higher. It ranks third in geothermal power production worldwide. In 2009, geothermal installed capacity was 964.5 MW and total production was 7.1 TWh. There are four geothermal fields under exploitation: Cerro Prieto, Los Azufres, Los Humeros and Las Tres Vírgenes.

Source: SENER 2009, Programa especial para el aprovechamiento de energías renovables

Mexico also has a large potential to produce energy from biomass. It is estimated that, taking into account agricultural and forest waste with energy potential and solid urban waste from the ten main cities, the country has a potential capacity of 803 MW and could generate 4,507 MWh per year. In the sugarcane industry, the estimated power generation protential from bagasse is over 3,000 MWh per year.

The electricity sector in Mexico underwent its first serious process of reorganizations during the 1930s, under the mandate of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The National Electricity Code was created and the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE), a newly create state-owned and state-financed enterprise, came to dominate all investment in new capacity. In 1960, a constitutional amendment nationalized the electricity industry and formally gave the government exclusive "responsibility" for generating, transmitting, transforming, and distributing electricity. During this decade, the government also created Compañía de la Luz y Fuerza del Centro (LFC) to supply electricity to Mexico City and the neighboring states.

During the 1960s and the 1970s, Mexico alienated private investment and decided to prevent market forces from entering the power system. In addition, the surge in oil prices of the 1970s provided a windfall to oil-rich Mexico, which allowed the country to maintain substantial subsidies for electricity generation. Only during the late 1980s and the early 1990s, the Mexican government implemented market reforms in several economic sectors, including electricity.

In 1992, president Carlos Salinas reformed the electricity law, establishing that private electricity production was not a public service. This modification, which allowed for private participation in generation, was debated as unconstitutional for a long time; in fact in 2002 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that it may have been unconstitutional. The Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) was created in 1993 as an autonomous agency in charge of regulating the natural gas and electricity industries. However, its functions were only related to private power producers (e.g. award of permits, arbitration, tariff studies) and did not cover CFE and LFC. In this period the CRE's functions were mainly focused on the gas sector and not on electricity.

Attempts by president Ernesto Zedillo in the late 1990s, by the National Action Party (PAN) in 2000, and president Vicente Fox to carry out a comprehensive reform of the electricity sector in Mexico faced strong political resistance. In 1999, President Zedillo sent an ambitious bill to Congress requesting a change of the Constitution and allowing for the unbundling of the sector, including the creation of distribution companies under 3-year concessions. Existing power plants would also be sold, except for nuclear and hydro power plants. In 2001, President Fox issued a reform decree that would allow independent power producers to sell directly to industrial customers and would also allow the sale of private power to CFE under long-term contracts without competitive bidding. Among other issues, the decree also specified that electricity is not a public service of general interest but a commercial service. Both reform attempts failed, opposed on grounds that the electricity and, more broadly, the energy sector is strategic for national sovereignty. As required by the Constitution, the electricity sector remained federally owned, with the CFE essentially controlling the whole sector.

Among the different proposals for the reform of the electricity sector, the main ones are the creation of the CFE's Fundamental Law and the modification of this firm's operations and the extension of Electricity Regulatory Commission's (CRE) competencies. Also important is the promotion of private independent power production and the discussion of the role played by Pidiregas (see Financing below) in the financing of large projects.

During the term of president Felipe Calderón, on 28 November 2008 two decrees published in the Official Journal of the Federation created two laws, one addressing renewable energy and the other energy efficiency.

The Renewable Energy Development and Energy Transition Financing Law (LAERFTE) mandated the Secretary of Energy (SENER) to produce a Special Program for Development of Renewable Energy (PEAER), and a National Strategy for Energy Transition and Sustainable Energy Use (ENTEASE), to be updated yearly. The main objective of the law is to regulate the use of renewable energy resources and clean technology, as well as to establish financing instruments to allow Mexico to scale-up electricity generation based on renewable resources. SENER and the Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) are responsible for defining those mechanisms and establishing legal instruments.

The following functions are the responsibility of SENER, among others: (a) defining a national program for ensuring a sustainable energy development both in the short and the longer term, (b) creating and coordinating the necessary instruments to enforce the law, (c) preparing a national renewable energy inventory, (d) establishing a methodology to determine the extent to which renewable energies may contribute to total electricity generation, (e) defining transmission expansion plans to connect power generation from renewable energy to the national grid, and (f) promoting the development of renewable energy projects to increase access in rural areas.

The CRE is responsible for developing rules and norms regarding the implementation of LAERFTE, including provisions for promotion, production, purchase and exchange of electricity from renewable sources. The CRE, in coordination with the Secretary of Finance (SCHP) and SENER, will determine the price that suppliers will pay to the renewable energy generators. Payments will be based on technology and geographic location. In addition, CRE will set rules for contracting between energy generators and suppliers, obliging the latter to establish long-term contracts from renewable sources.

The Sustainable Energy Use Law (LASE) has as its objective to provide incentives for the sustainable use of energy in all processes and activities related to its exploitation, production, transformation, distribution and consumption, including energy efficiency measures. More specifically, the law proposes:

• The creation of a National Program for Sustainable Energy Use (PRONASE), which targets energy efficiency promotion in the public sector, as well as research and diffusion of sustainable energy use.
• The establishment of the National Commission for Efficient Energy Use (CONUEE) as a decentralized body of SENER that (i) will advise the national public administration and (ii) promote the implementation of best practices related to energy efficiency. This entity replaced the National Commission for Energy Saving (CONAE), which had been the leading government energy efficiency body.
• The creation of an Advisory Committee for Sustainable Energy Use (CCASE) as part of the CONUEE to evaluate the compliance of objectives, strategies, actions and goals of the program, consisting of the Energy Minister (SENER) and six academic researchers with extensive experience in the field.
• The creation of the National Subsystem of Information for Energy Use to register, organize, update and disseminate information about (i) energy consumption, its end-uses in distinct industries and geographical regions of the country, (ii) factors that impel these uses, and (iii) indicators of energy efficiency.

In this context, the Government carries the following specific activities: (i) a program aimed at replacing incandescent bulbs (IBs) with compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in the residential sector, (ii) an appliances replacement program, (iii) the modernization of the public transport system for long distances and surroundings, (iv) a program for energy efficiency in municipalities, (v) industrial and commercial energy efficiency programs, (vi) supply side energy efficiency in the electricity sector, and (vii) energy efficiency in the national oil company, PEMEX.

On 12 October 2009, the police seized the offices of the state-owned Luz y Fuerza del Centro, dissolving the company, laying off the workers, and putting its operations, which supply power to 25 million Mexicans, under the control of the CFE. According to the government, spending at the company was increasingly outpacing sales.

The energy sector in Mexico was reformed by an initiative that president Enrique Peña Nieto presented to the Congress of the Union on 12 August 2013. The reform was approved by the Senate on 11 December of that year, and by the Chamber of Deputies one day later. On 18 December the reform was declared constitutional, and it was signed into effect on 20 December by its publication in the Official Journal of the Federation. The initiative proposed that Article 27 of the Constitution of Mexico returned to the wording that it had in 1938 when president Lázaro Cárdenas made a first reform, which affirmed that the natural resources belong exclusively to the nation, but allowed the participation of private enterprises in the extraction and handling of these resources on behalf of the state. In 1960 a protectionist reform had made it impossible for any private company to participate in the energy sector, so the 2013 decree restored Article 27 to its previous state and included a similar provision for developing the electrical sector: a market for electricity generation would be established in which private entities could participate, but the control, transmission and distribution would remain an exclusive task of the state as a public service.

By the end of 2014, several decrees transformed the Mexican national electric sector. On 11 August 2014 the following laws were published:

• Electric Industry Law (LIE). Its objective is to regulate the generation, transmission, distribution, and commercialization of the electricity, the planning and control of the national electric system (SEN), and the operation of the wholesale electricity marker (MEM). The law gives further attributions to the Secretary of Energy (SENER) and the Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) to execute the energy policies. It also supposes the transfer of certain obligations from the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE) to the National Center for Energy Control (CENACE), which becomes independent from CFE, in order to manage the electric system (SEN) and the market (MEM).
• Federal Electricity Commission Law (LCFE). The firm is established as a "productive company" of the state, in order to produce additional value and return of investment through industrial, commercial, or entrepreneurial activities. This contrasts with its previous ordinance in which it only provided electricity as a public service with a fixed budget. This presumes structural changes in the company, creation of new subsidiaries, resulting in more transparency, better bookkeeping, and increase in operational efficiency.
• Regulating Institutions in Energy Matters Law. Establishes the collaboration between the most important government bodies, such as SENER and CENACE, in order to implement the energy policies, and recommend changes to them.
• Other associated laws, such as Geothermic Energy Law, Hydrocarbons Law, Pemex Law.

During this time the SENER published the general rules to obtain and assign clean energy certificates (CEL), which are equivalent to 1 MWh of clean energy, no matter the specific technology. The SENER also mandated that qualified users (big consumers) acquire 5% of their own consumption in CELs for 2018 and 2019. Furthermore, the SENER published simplified rules for interconnection of private generators.

On 30 June 2015 the government presented the Program for Development of the National Electric System (PRODESEN) which establishes a master plan for the electrical system until 2030. On 8 September 2015 the SENER published the first Rules for the Electricity Market establishing the new rights and obligations for the generators, resellers, and qualified users of the market, to be overseen by the CRE and the CENACE. The wholesale electric market officially commenced operations on 1 January 2016.

These reforms meant that in November 2015 the first public offering for private generation and CELs was made, with a decision of the winning bidders being announced on 30 March 2016. After a first round of evaluation, 227 offers were made by 69 private companies, which translated to 18 winning projects from 11 companies, including 84.6% of the requested CELs. The commencement of operation of the winning projects is scheduled to begin on 28 March 2018. The sole buyer of the energy is the CFE.

On 24 December 2015 the Energy Transition Law (LTE) was published, strengthening the integration of renewables into the generation mix. It also establishes ambitious plans for having 35% of renewable energy by 2024, from 28% in 2015 (which includes 18% of hydroelectric energy). After announcing the winners of the first bid, the second public offering for energy was shortly announced, and the resulting decision made in October 2016, in which 28% is renewable energy, mostly photovoltaic and eolic.

The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (SCJN) ruled that a May 2020 order by the Secretariat of Energy (SENER) limiting connections to the CFE distribution by private renewable energy producers was unconstitutional.

On 1 February 2021, President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) sent an initiative to reform the Electricity Industry Law to the Congress of the Union. The proposal, which must be approved in 30 days, would reverse the energy reform approved under former president Enrique Peña Nieto. There are four priorities: 1) hydroelectric energy, 2) other energy produced by CFE (nuclear, geothermal, thermoelectric, and combined cycle gas turbines), 3) wind and solar energy produced by individuals, and 4) other. AMLO insists that previous reforms were made with the intention of privatizing the energy sector and will require either massive subsidies or huge price increases for consumers.

During the last decade, average electricity tariffs in Mexico have been held below cost with the aim of maintaining macroeconomic and social stability. For all tariffs, an interagency group composed of CFE (Federal Electricity Commission, or Comisión Federal de Electricidad), LFC (Central Light and Power, or Luz y Fuerza del Centro), SHCP (Ministry of Finance and Public Credit, or Secretaria de Hacienda y Crédito Público), SENER (Ministry of Energy, or Secretaria de Energia), CRE (Regulatory Commission of Energy, or Comisión Reguladora de la Energía), and CNA (National Water Commission, or Comisión Nacional del Agua) meet regularly and once a year they prepare a tariff proposal for the subsequent year. Tariffs are approved by SHCP and not by the energy sector regulator.

Except for the tariff set for the agricultural sector, average electricity prices have followed an upward trend since the year 2002. In 2008, average tariffs for the different sectors were:

• Residential: US$0.106/kWh
• Commercial: US$0.255/kWh
• Services: US$0.172/kWh
• Agriculture: US$0.051/kWh
• Industrial: medium industry US$0.153/kWh, large industry US$0.118/kWh

The average tariff, US$0.137/kWh, was 16.5% higher in 2008 when compared to 2007.

For the industrial and commercial sectors, electricity supply is priced on a rational cost basis for large firms. As a result, they receive no government subsidy, while subsidies for small firms are relatively small. On the other hand, agricultural and residential customers have traditionally received large subsidies since the electricity they consume is significantly underpriced. Extensive subsidies have contributed to a rapid growth in demand. In 2000, the average residential tariff covered only 43% of the costs, while the average tariff for agricultural use covered 31%. Total subsidies amounted to 46% of total electricity sales. In addition, residential subsidies were mostly captured by medium and high income classes as the amount of the subsidy raised with consumption.

In 2002, a restructuring of residential tariffs significantly raised the infra-marginal tariffs paid by middle and especially high consumers of electricity. Currently, billing schedules vary by temperature, season and consumption level. In spite of this reform, price/cost ratio was still under 40% in 2002, even after the 21% increase in price due to the reform. In addition, the share of subsidies going to the non-poor population remained high, estimated at 64%. Agricultural tariffs were also modified in 2003, when a fixed price per kWh was fixed. These new tariffs sought charging higher prices for excess energy use.

The low tariffs, together with LFC's inefficiencies, absorb a large amount of fiscal resources. For 2008, it was estimated that the subsidies paid through electricity tariffs to final CFE and LFC consumers by the Federal Government amounted to US$10 billion (close to 1% of GDP).

Necessary investment to carry out the 2008-2017 expansion plan amounts to MXN 629,106 million (US$47 billion). The breakdown of the investment is: 41.2% for generation, 21.2% for transmission, 23.9% for distribution, 11.8% for maintenance and 1.9% for other needs.

From the required total, 33.9% corresponds to OFP (Obras Públicas Financiadas or Financed Public Works), 8.8% to Independent Power Production, 51.5% to budgeted works and the remaining 5.9% to financial schemes still to be defined.

In 1995-1996 the Mexican government created Pidiregas ("Proyectos de Inversión Diferida En El Registro del Gasto " – Investment Projects with Deferred Expenditure Registration) to finance long-term productive infrastructure projects. Due to budgetary restrictions, the government realized that it could not provide all the resources needed and decided to complement the public sector's efforts with Pidiregas, a deferred financing schedule. This mechanism, which only applied to investments carried out by PEMEX(Petróleos Mexicanos) and CFE aimed to create the conditions for the penetration of private initiatives in hydrocarbon exploration and electricity generation. Pidiregas have been extended and have also grown in amount (PEMEX uses them for as much as four times the amount of CFE), although the original motivation for their existence is gone.

Following a project finance scheme, for a project to be executed under Pidiregas, the resources that it generates from the sale of goods and services have to be enough to cover the incurred financial obligations. Projects are paid with the revenues generated during their operation and require the signature of a contract in which a product or work is involved. The State assumes the risk since PEMEX or CFE sign the contract as guarantee, while the investors recover their investment in the agreed time. As a result, Pidiregas cannot be considered as true private investment since, under true private sector participation, firms would make investment decisions and bear the full risk. The viability of the program has been questioned as its effect in the public budget is similar to the emission of public debt. Furthermore, until 2006, the Pidigeras scheme resulted in losses.

Since 1995, states and municipalities hold the responsibility for the planning and financing of grid extension and off-grid supply. A large part of the investment is financed through FAIS (Fund to Support Social Infrastructure). The National Commission for Indigenous People and SEDESOL (Secretariat for Social Development) also finance an important share of grid extension. Once a particular system has been constructed, its assets and operational and financial responsibility are transferred to CFE.

Recent studies have concluded that interconnecting Baja California with the National Interconnected System (SIN) would be both a technically and economically sound decision. This interconnection would allow to serve peak demand in the Baja California system with generation resources from the SIN. Conversely, in period of low demand in Baja California, surplus electricity and base load (i.e. geothermal and combined cycles) could be exported to the SIN. As a result, there would be a reduction of investment costs in generation infrastructure and of total production costs. In addition, the interconnection would open new opportunities for electricity exchanges with power utilities in Western United States through the existing transmission links with California. It is expected that the interconnection will be commissioned in 2013.

The Renewable Energy Law creates a Fund for the Energy Transition and the Sustainable Use of Energy. This fund will assure the financing of projects evaluated and approved by the Technical Committee, chaired by SENER. The fund will begin with US$200 million for each year between 2009 and 2011.

As required by the Constitution, the electricity sector in Mexico remains federally owned, with the Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE) essentially controlling the whole sector. Although generation was opened to private participation in 1992, CFE is still the dominant player, with two-thirds of installed capacity.

The Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT), created in 2000 from the previous Secretariat of Environment, Natural Resources and Fishing (SEMARNAP) holds the responsibilities for the environment in Mexico.

SEMARNAT was one of the government agencies within the Intersectoral Commission for Climate Change that elaborated Mexico's Climate Change Strategy.

According to Mexico's Third National Communication to the UNFCCC, the country emitted 643 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO₂e) in 2002, of which almost 400 Mt CO₂e resulted from the combustion of fossil fuels (over 60 percent of total emissions). The sources of Mexico's GHG emissions are energy generation (24%), transport (18%), forests and land-use change (14%), waste management (10%), manufacturing and construction (8%), industrial processes (8%), agriculture (7%), fugitive emissions (6%), and other uses (5%).

Although the Kyoto Protocol does not require Mexico to reduce its GHG emissions, the country has committed to reduce its emissions voluntarily. In May 2007, President Calderón announced the National Climate Change Strategy which focuses on climate change as a central part of Mexico's national development policy. The ENACC sets the long-term climate change agenda for the country, together with medium to long-term goals for adaptation and mitigation. In December 2008, Mexico announced that it would reduce its GHG emissions by 50% below 2002 levels by 2050.

In June 2009, the Government of Mexico formally committed itself to a detailed long-term plan for emission reductions embedded in the Special Climate Change Program (PECC) that provides an accounting of emissions by sector, creates a framework for monitoring improvements and establishes a legally binding blueprint for emission reduction initiatives, sector by sector. The PECC sets out a four pillar program that includes (i) a long-term vision for government action; (ii) sectoral plans for GHG mitigation; (iii) plans for adaptation; and (iv) cross-cutting policy initiatives.

In September 2009, there are 47 energy-related registered CDM projects in Mexico with a total emission reduction potential of about 3.5 million tons of CO₂ equivalent. The table below presents the number of projects by type:

Source: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Currently, the World Bank is contributing funds and assistance through several projects related to the energy sector in Mexico.

• A Rural Electrification Project with a US$15 million grant from GEF and a US$15 million World Bank loan is currently in the pipeline. This US$110 million project is focused in the design and implementation of sustainable energy models for areas without access to the electricity network. The project includes 50,000 households in Oaxaca, Guerrero and Veracruz.
• In October 2006, GEF financing was approved for the US$49.35 million Agua Prieta Hybrid Solar Thermal Power Plant. This project, located in the northern state of Sonora, will contribute to reduce GHG emissions through the installation of an Integrated Solar Combined Cycle System (ISCCS) using solar parabolic technology.
• A Large-Scale Renewable Energy Development Project was approved in June 2006. This two-phase project will receive a US$25.35 million grant from GEF, while the remaining $US 125 million will be financed by local and private sources. The project seeks to assist Mexico in developing initial experience in commercially based, grid-connected renewable energy applications. It will do so by supporting the construction of an approximately 101 megawatt independent power producer (IPP) wind farm, designated as "La Venta III".
• The Prototype Carbon Fund approved in December 2006 a US$12.29 million investment loan for a Wind Umbrella Project Archived 2012-10-06 at the Wayback Machine.
• A US$5.8 million GEF grant was approved in October 2002 for the Introduction of Climate Friendly Measures in Transport. The project, with a total budget of US$12.2 million, has will contribute to the establishment of policies that will assist towards a long-term modal shift in a climate-friendly, more efficient and less polluting, less carbon-intensive transport for the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA).

Currently, four IDB financed energy activities are under implementation in Mexico.

• In August 2009, a US$1 million non-reimbursable technical cooperation support to the National Program for Sustainable Energy Use
• In September 2008, a US$749,000 non-reimbursable technical cooperation was approved to support the implementation of a pilot initiative to use alternative energy sources and implement energy efficiency measures. This technical cooperation is still awaiting implementation.
• In May 2007, US$200,000 was approved to finance a project that aims at providing Assistance to CFE on Environmental and Social Aspects of Hydroelectric Projects. This US$1,168,000 project aims to assess CFE performance and management capability in dealing with environmental and social impacts of large hydroelectric projects.
• Financing for the Support for the Energy Secretariat on the Feasibility of Bio-Ethanol as Fuel Archived 2007-05-16 at the Wayback Machine was approved in August 2005. The US$146,000 provided by the IDB are complemented with US$30,000 from the country. The broad objective of the project is assessing the competitiveness of ethanol as a fuel.

• Carreón and Jimenez, 2003. The Mexican Electricity Sector: Economic, Legal and Political Issues.
• SENER, 2006. Prospectiva del sector eléctrico 2006-2015.
• SENER & GTZ, 2006. Energías renovables para el desarrollo sustentable en México.
• SENER, 2009. Prospectiva del sector eléctrico 2008-2017.
• SENER, 2009. Programa Especial para el Aprovechamiento de Energías Renovables.
• SENER, 2015. Prospectiva del sector eléctrico 2015-2029.
• World Bank, 2004. Energy Policies and the Mexican Economy.
• World Bank, 2004. Mexico: public expenditure review, Volume II: Main report.
• World Bank, 2005. Mexico: infrastructure public expenditure review (IPER).

• Mexico
• Economy of Mexico
• Energy in Mexico
• Index of Mexico-related articles
• Renewable energy in Mexico
• Wind power in Mexico
• Solar power in Mexico
• Petroleum industry in Mexico
• Water supply and sanitation in Mexico
• Renewable energy by country

• "Environment and Natural Resources Secretariat (SEMARNAT)". Archived from the original on 2008-07-01. Retrieved 2007-10-02..
• List of World Bank projects in Mexico Archived 2013-07-06 at the Wayback Machine
• List of Inter-American Development Bank projects in Mexico

Climate change in Mexico is expected to have widespread impacts: with significant decreases in precipitation and increases in temperatures. This will put pressure on the economy, people and the biodiversity of many parts of the country, which have largely arid or hot climates. Already climate change has impacted agriculture, biodiversity, farmer livelihoods, and migration, as well as water, health, air pollution, traffic disruption from floods, and housing vulnerability to landslides.

Altered precipitation patterns and warming temperatures have led to economic insecurity in Mexico, particularly for smallholder farmers who grow Mexico's economically and culturally important crops: maize and coffee. Climate change impacts are especially severe in Mexico City, due to increases in air pollution. Ecological impacts of climate change within Mexico include reductions in landscape connectivity and shifting migratory patterns of animals. Furthermore, climate change in Mexico is tied to worldwide trade and economic processes which relate directly to global food security.

The mean annual temperature has increased by 0.6 °C in Mexico since 1960. Temperature is expected to increase in Mexico by 1.1–3.0 °C by 2060 and 1.3–4.8 °C by 2090. As such, scientists, including the IPCC, have classified the entire Central American region as a “climate change hot-spot” and “highly vulnerable” to climate change.

Climate change models, while highly variable, have projected an increase in the variation and intensity of precipitation (i.e. floods and droughts) for the climate of Mexico. The largest changes in precipitation are anticipated to occur during the summer months, especially in southern Mexico. Precipitation is expected to decrease by −3% to −15% by 2090 for the country as a whole. Regionally, precipitation changes may be anywhere between −60% and +8%.

Mountain cloud forests, especially in the Michoacán, act as dispersal corridors for many species that travel between habitats. These forests are highly subject to human disturbances such as mining and deforestation. This is important because the distribution of these forests is an integral factor of landscape connectivity. As the distribution of these forests changes due to climate effects, landscape connectivity is also affected. An evaluation of this property of connectivity of the mountain cloud forests of Michoacán was carried out by researchers in order to determine which areas would best benefit from greater conservation efforts.

Mexico contains a significant portion of the world's biodiversity, making it essential that "biodiversity hot-spots" present within its borders are properly protected from the effects of climate change. A large amount of land in Mexico is already designated as protected areas, as such, these conservation areas are refugia for a number of threatened species. Researchers are investigating how protected ecosystems in Mexico will be affected by climate change, and to what degree. Their research concluded that all 40 of the studied protected areas are expected to face warming temperatures while 30 will face decreased precipitation. The researchers suggest that their study be used to determine which of the protected areas in Mexico would benefit most from greater conservation efforts.

Warming temperatures and land-use change are contributing to the movement of butterfly distributions up the Sierra de Juárez mountain range in Oaxaca, Mexico. In 2016, research was conducted to determine which butterfly species were moving either up or down the mountain range. The researchers determined that more species were moving upward than were moving downward. The researchers also concluded that, as a result of distribution changes, there was a greater abundance of generalist butterfly species in lowlands.

Bat distributions and ranges in Mexico are expected to shift as a result of changes in climate and increased land-use change. As an indicator species, bats can provide researchers useful information on the degree and extent of climate related species responses. Researchers analyzed previous records of bat occurrence across Mexico and used the derived data to project how bat species may respond to land-use change and climate effects. Results showed that habitat suitability for over half of 130 bat species is expected to decrease under current climate trends. The results also revealed that land-use change had less of an effect on habitat suitability for bats than climate change.

A significant number of mammals are endemic to Mexico, an abundance of those species being small mammals. Many of these small mammals are known to inhabit tropical areas of Mexico, however, it is these tropical dry ecosystems that are highly subject to the effects of land-use change and climate change, making small mammals particularly vulnerable. Researchers set up a 19-year study of small mammal populations in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve located in Jalisco, Mexico. This site was chosen by the researchers due to the occurrence of a significant amount of anthropogenic disturbance in the surrounding area. The researchers concluded that functional diversity in this area was lower than expected, and, as such, greater conservation efforts should be encouraged in the region.

In order to determine how conservation efforts should be implemented in order to best protect breeding bird communities, a study was conducted by Aaron D. Flesch. This study of breeding bird communities in Mexico found that species were trending higher in altitude and towards the poles. In order to collect his data, Flesch used techniques that had been used by previous researchers and conducted an observational survey to determine biodiversity values. From the collected data and historical climate data, Flesch found that some lowland species moved north and others moved east to higher altitudes.

In 2017, an estimated seven million people were employed in the agricultural sector in Mexico. Climate change has caused many people in Mexico who depend on agriculture for employment to experience economic insecurity.

"Wheat production for Mexico is expected to decline by 12% under the future RCP 8.5 climate change scenario with additional losses of 7 to 18% because of O3 impact," according to a July 2019 article. In the Yucatán Peninsula, the rise in temperature is affecting crop production. Extreme heat can negatively affect crops by slowing down growth and increasing moisture loss in the soil. Over the past 15 years until 2010, a Mayan village in Cancún, Tabi, experienced a 50-60% reduction in crop yield. Additionally, climate change is affecting rainfall patterns. Farmers are finding it more difficult to predict rainfall, which if predicted wrong can waste "an entire season's worth of seeds".

Drying and warming trends are altering and shifting climatic zones and agricultural environments worldwide, and Mexico is no exception. According to the World Bank, "agriculture [in Mexico] is highly vulnerable to weather extremes, in particular in the Northern parts of the country, where water scarcity is an issue, or the Southern parts of the country, where tropical storms cause extensive damage to crop[s]."

Exact predictions are difficult to make due to the complexity of the factors involved and the impacts will be highly region-specific; however, there is a general consensus that the productivity of crops and livestock will decline. Scientists also expect that certain insect pests and plant pathogens will survive and reproduce more often due to warming temperatures and are likely to invade new regions. Highland farmers and the rural poor are especially vulnerable to these climatic shifts. Decreased precipitation will place higher burdens on irrigated agriculture, on which much of the country's exported, economically-important crops rely. Conversely, more intense rainfall events will damage crop production. Higher temperatures are expected to increase evapotranspiration rates, leading to drying trends in soil moisture.

Climate change threatens not only food and economic security in Mexico, but is also tied to much larger, global food systems. In 2017, the United States imported $13.3 billion of fruits and vegetables from Mexico. Declining crop yields in Mexico due to climate change will ultimately impact global trade networks, national economies, and food security in countries that are, perhaps, geographically distant; yet through free-trade policies such as NAFTA and USMCA, have become highly dependent on Mexican agriculture.

Maize is of central importance to Mexican agriculture, occupying the largest cultivated area in the country. It is a critical component of the diets and nutritional intake of both the urban and rural populations. A large number of smallholder farmers in Mexico depend on rain-fed maize for their livelihoods, leaving these farmers particularly vulnerable to temperature and precipitation fluxes from climate change. Mexico's maize yields are expected to decline from 1555 to 1440 kg/ha by 2055. An absolute decline of 883,200 t. in maize annual production is estimated to occur within this timeframe. Maize is closely tied to Mexican identity, thus any decline in maize productivity and diversity will also have important socio-cultural and political consequences.

Mexico (Mesoamerica more generally) is the center of origin for maize. Mexico alone has 59 unique maize landraces recorded and thousands of regionally adapted maize varieties. Maize diversity in Mexico continues to be maintained and managed by smallholder farmers who participate in traditional seed sharing networks. Maize landraces in Mexico are conserved in place, or in-situ, by farmers who continue to grow them in their fields. Commercial maize seed is planted on less than one-fourth of Mexico's 8 million hectares of arable land. The majority of farmers in Mexico use, save, and exchange the seed of traditional maize landraces along with “creolized” (hybridized or cross-pollinated) commercial cultivars, which are typically planted in small (<5 ha) rain-fed fields.

An estimated 18 percent of maize cultivation in Mexico takes place in the highlands, and maize agro-climates in the highland regions are most at risk from climate change. Many scientists are concerned about the effects climate change poses on maize genetic diversity and the negative impacts that continued maize germplasm loss will have, not only on Mexican agriculture, but worldwide, as maize is the most widely grown crop in the world. Bellon et al. (2011) discuss the need to strengthen and broaden traditional seed networks in Mexico to support farmers and the genetic integrity of maize in light of climate change; thus, extending the geographic ranges of seed networks to link farmers in the highlands, for example, with farmers in mid-altitude environments.

In Mexico and Central America more broadly, some 8.5 million people rely on coffee production for their livelihoods. Variable and extreme climatic events such as droughts, floods, and excessive heat is already impacting both the quality and overall production of coffee in Mexico. In 2012, higher than average temperatures and high-altitude rains led to an outbreak of coffee leaf rust, affecting roughly 50 percent of the coffee crop in Central America. This resulted in $500 million in crop damages to the region and caused many people in the region to lose their livelihoods. Regional studies in Mexico have projected that coffee growing could be unviable by the end of the decade.

Responses will need to occur both in the social and ecological realms and across multiple scales. Key strategies include crop diversification and the implementation of more resilient coffee production systems. Farmer education, access to information, health, and equity factors all play important roles in adaptation responses as well. Yet, there are also large-scale and global factors at play, such as international trade markets, which are often volatile, that are beyond farmers’ control. A handful of coffee companies, NGOs, and agencies have initiated training and education programs for Mexican farmers to better respond to climate change.

Many Mexican smallholder farmers continue to depend on rain-fed agriculture for their subsistence and livelihoods. Climate change is very closely tied to environmental justice in Mexico, given that poor smallholder farmers will likely carry the largest burden. Farmers respond to climate change in varying ways: changing their agricultural practices, adjusting their livelihood strategies, or exiting agriculture altogether.

There is evidence to suggest that declining agricultural conditions from climate change in Mexico directly relates to migration to the United States. For example, a direct relationship between declining crop yields in Mexico and migration was found. Declines in agricultural productivity due to climate change might cause 1.4 to 6.7 million adult Mexicans to emigrate by the year 2080.

Valle de Bravo, a man-made lagoon located approximately 85 miles west of Mexico City, faces a significant water crisis. The lake’s capacity has diminished to 28% of its usual level due to an extended dry season, with satellite imagery showing an 18% reduction in the shoreline between 2022 and 2024. This situation illustrates broader issues related to climate change, population growth, and outdated infrastructure in Mexico. Climate change has led to decreased rainfall and higher temperatures, which have notably affected water levels. Population growth has increased demand, partly driven by a rise in population during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, outdated infrastructure has resulted in inefficient and aging water systems, causing substantial leakage. This water crisis has significantly impacted local communities. The local water treatment plant can only supply water to 25,000 people, far below the town's population of approximately 60,000. The influx of weekend visitors further strains the demand. Nationally, around 51% of Mexico is experiencing severe or extreme drought, with one-third of the population lacking reliable daily access to water. Heatwaves in 2023 have resulted in at least 14 deaths and have adversely affected wildlife, including howler monkeys.

In 2012, Mexico passed a comprehensive climate change bill, a first in the developing world, that has set a goal for the country to generate 35% of its energy from clean energy sources by 2024, and to cut emissions by 50% by 2050, from the level found in 2000. During the 2016 North American Leaders' Summit, the target of 50% of electricity generated from renewable sources by 2025 was announced. Various climate mitigation efforts have been implemented throughout the country. Mexico has been considered a leader in climate mitigation and climate adaptation.

The Paris agreement is a legally binding international agreement, its main goal is to limit global warming to below 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels. The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC's) are the plans to fight climate change adapted for each country. Every party in the agreement has different targets based on its own historical climate records and country's circumstances and all the targets for each country are stated in their NDC.

The NDC target regarding México against climate change and greenhouse gas emissions under the Paris agreement are the following:

• Reach a zero-net deforestation rate by 2030.
• 55% reduction of Greenhouse gases by domestic binding target without contribution from international credits, until 2030 compared to 1990.
• Gases covered in reduction: Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Methane (CH₄), Nitrous oxide (N₂O), Hydrofluorocarbon (HFCs), Perfluorinated compound (PFCs) and Sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆).
• Black carbon emission reduction by 51% by 2030 compared to a baseline under a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario.
• Additionally, as a conditional contribution, Mexico could increase its reductions up to 36% for GHG and 70% for black carbon.

Every country has different ways to achieve the established goals depending on his size, history and resources. In the case of México, the government has applied the following rules to support the NDC's climate change plan:

• Encourage eco-friendly consumption practices, conservation of natural resources and a massive recuperation of biocultural landscapes.
• Provide founding mechanisms that mitigate uncooperative impacts of climate change. Particularly on the primary productive sector.
• Strengthen environmental strategic instruments and execute actions to preserve, restore and manage continental ecosystems, increasing their ecological connectivity.
• Plan and implement measures that come up with to control desertification and enrich the soil conservation..
• Deeply care of the sea conditions, implementing actions for the conservation and restoration of the seas and oceans to enhance their resilience and preserve the different ecosystems inside them.
• Enforce the potable water management, ensuring quantity and quality of water in human settlements. Also, increasing the treatment of industrial and urban wastewater, promoting hydrological environmental services, through the protection of watersheds with special attention to nature-based alternatives.
• Recommended climate adaptation strategies for coffee production in Mexico include (1) promoting farming practices that increase biodiversity, such as agroforestry, which provides protection against extreme weather events and allows for product diversification, (2) diversifying farmer incomes to mitigate risks from climate and market volatility, and (3) enabling markets that support sustainable coffee growing practices, among others. Shade-grown coffee (typically with Coffea arabica in Mexico) provisions critical ecosystem services: pollination and hydrological services, wildlife habitat, and pest and erosion control. It has been estimated that 60–70% of coffee production in Mexico is grown under shade by a diversity of tree species. However, there is concern that hotter growing conditions and irregular rainfall patterns will cause a decline in coffee quality and hence profitability, propelling farmers to abandon shade-grown coffee altogether.
• Due to a continual process of farmer-mediated selection and their diverse genetic makeup, maize landraces in Mexico have the ability to adapt and evolve to changing environmental conditions; although it will be difficult to predict exactly how they will change or the extent to which they will be able to adapt, particularly to rising temperatures. Biotechnology, and the development and promotion of maize transgenics in particular, is being promoted as a critical climate adaptation strategy, not only in Mexico but around the world. While stress-tolerant maize transgenics could bring important benefits to Mexico, there are a number of concerns associated with them. In particular, concerns have been raised about the lower productivity of improved varieties compared to landraces in many parts of Mexico; the longstanding lack of acceptance of transgenic varieties by Mexican farmers; and that the promotion of transgenics threatens local landrace diversity. Participatory maize breeding, that is the inclusion of farmers in the formal breeding process, may hold considerable potential for climate change adaptation in Mexico.
• The Mexican government's climate change program explicitly identifies "the adoption and implementation of sustainable agriculture" as a key adaptation strategy. Sustainable agriculture can take many forms. One type of strategy that has been proposed includes changing farmers’ agricultural practices. For example, changing the timing of irrigation and crop planting, introducing new landraces and cultivars by extending seed-sharing networks, and adopting biodiversity-friendly farming practices that increase agroecosystem resilience. Evidence suggests that smallholder farmers in southern Mexico have begun adapting their agricultural practices due to climate change, by, for example, delaying crop plantings and planting a diversity of landrace varieties.

Ecobici is the bicycle sharing system launched in February 2010 by the government of Mexico City. Initially launched with 85 docking stations and 1,000 distinctive red and white liveried bicycles, the network then expanded by September 2013 to be at 276 stations with 4,000 bicycles, and as of April 2015, now has 444 stations with 6,000 bicycles.

Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. Covering 1,972,550 km² (761,610 sq mi), it is the world's 13th largest country by area; with a population of almost 130 million, it is the 10th most populous country and has the most Spanish speakers in the world. Mexico is organized as a federal constitutional republic comprising 31 states and Mexico City, its capital and largest city, which is among the world's most populous metropolitan areas. The country shares land borders with the United States to the north, with Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; as well as maritime borders with the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the southeast, and the Gulf of Mexico to the east.

Human presence in Pre-Columbian Mexico dates back to 8,000 BC, making it one of the world's six cradles of civilization. The Mesoamerican region hosted various intertwined civilizations, including the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, and Purepecha. The Aztecs came to dominate the area prior to European contact. In 1521, the Spanish Empire, alongside indigenous allies, conquered the Aztec Empire, establishing the colony of New Spain centered in the former capital, Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City). Over the next three centuries, Spain expanded its territorial control, enforced Christianity, and spread the Spanish language, with the colony's rich silver deposits fueling its empire. The colonial era ended in the early 19th century with the Mexican War of Independence.